GIFT  OF 


!ll!ll«^ 


A  MANUAL 


CONTAINING  THE 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 


FOR  THE 


Elementary    Schools    of    West 
Virginia 


Revised  Edition— 1914. 


Prepared  by 
THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

And  issued  by 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOLS 

M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent 

Charleston 


(DUNE  PRINTING  CO.,   CHARLESTON,   W.  VA. 


A  MANUAL 

CONTAINING 

T  he  Graded  Course  of  Study 

FOR  THE 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

OF 

WEST  VIRGINIA 


Revised  Edition — 1914. 


Prepared  by 
V^u-  .          THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

And  issued  by 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  FREE  SCHOOLS 

M.  P.  Shawkey,  State  Superintendent 

Charleston 


STATE  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION: 

M.  I*.  Shawkey,  President,  Charleston. 
J.  D.  Garrison,  Secretary,  Middlebourne. 
J.  N.  Deahl,  Morgan  town. 
C.  R.  Murray,  Williamson. 
H.  F.  Fleshman,  Hinton. 
Walter  Barnes,  Fairmont. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION  I  —  Special  Articles. 

Introductory    .......................................  5 

Rural  School  Equipment  .............................  6 

The  Decoration  of  School  Rooms  ......................  8 

Sanitation    ..............................  :  ..........  16 

Grading  and  Promotion  in  Rural  Schools  ................  18 

Examinations  and  the  Free  School  Diploma  .............  19 

Literary  Exercises  ...................................  30 

Reading  Circle  Work  .................................  22 

Play  ...............................................  23 

Morals  and  Manners  .................................  35 

Plan  Book  ..........................................  27 

The  Daily  Program  ..................................  28 

SECTION  II  —  Outline  of  Studies  by  Grades. 

First  Grade   ........................................  35 

Second  Grade    .....  .................................  35 

Third  Grade    .......................................  36 

Fourth  Grade    ......................................  37 

Fifth  Grade  .........................................  38 

Sixth  Grade  ........................................  38 

Seventh   Grade    ____  '  ..........................  .  ......  39 

Eighth   Grade    ......................................  40 

SECTION  III  —  Outline  of  Studies  by  Subjects. 

Reading  and  Literature  .  ...  Vc.  ;  ......  ..................  45 

Language  and  Composition'','!  .{.  jX*.  f.  .:  ...................  67 

Writing  ____  v£.  ;  :  ,  ;  »•.;...•.  ........  .  .  .  t  .  .*  ..................  83 

Spelling    ...'.*.  *.".  I*.  ;.  •.':.'::*  .'?  .•*.:  .vv  %../.  ................  103 

Arithmetic    ...............................  ,  .........  107 

Nature  Study  ..................  .....................  141 

Agriculture    ....................  ...................  .  157 

Geography    .........................................  170 

United  States  History  ................................  189 

Civil  Government   ...................................  301 

State   History    ......................................  306 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  ..............................  308 

Drawing    ............................  ^  ..............  314 

Music  .                                                                                       .  339 


INTRODUCTORY. 


In  1908  the  State  Legislature  passed  an  act  creating  a  State  Board 
of  Education.  One  of  the  duties  of  this  Board  is  to  prepare  and  pub- 
lish a  State  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  and  High  Schools.  In 
compliance  with  this  statute  the  Board  prepared  and  ^issued  in  19  09 
a  Manual  of  the  courses  of  study  for  both  elementary  and  high 
schools  in  a  single  volume.  In  1912  the  Board  revised  the  courses 
of  study  for  both  elementary  and  high  schools,  but  issued  separate 
manuals  for  these  two  kinds  of  schools.  This  manual  is  a  revision, 
in  1914,  of  the  elementary  manual  issued  in  1912. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  of  references  this  manual  is  divided 
into  three  sections.  Section  I  contains  several  special  articles  writ- 
ten by  individual  members  of  the  Board  and  the  Daily  Program  of 
Studies.  Section  II  contains  an  Outline  of  Studies  by  grades,  indi- 
cating the  text-book  to  be  used,  and  the  amount  of  each  to  be  com- 
pleted each  year,  or  half-year.  Section  III  contains  a  detailed  out- 
line of  studies  by  subjects.  For  immediate  reference  Section  II  will 
be  sufficient;  but  questions  as  to  how  to  teach  any  given  subject,  and 
just  what  to  teacli,  will  be  answered  in  Section  III.  Throughout  Sec- 
tion II  references  are  frequently  made  to  Section  III.  Teachers  are 
urged  to  study  Section  III  as  a  text  on  pedagogy;  for  in  this  section 
most  of  the  questions  that  confront  the  teacher  in  her  daily  class 
work  are  answered.  For  the  next  year  or  two,  at  least,  the  examina- 
tion for  renewal  of  teachers'  certificates  and  some  of  the  questions  on 
Theory  and  Art  in  the  State  Uniform  Examinations  will  be  taken 
from  this  manual. 


293979 


SECTION  I 


Special  Articles  and  Daily  Program  of 

Studies. 


RURAL  SCHOOL  EQUIPMENT. 


We  will  assume  that  your  school  has  ample  grounds,  a  good  house 
with  outbuildings,  pure  drinking  water  within  easy  reach,  suitable 
desks  for  the  pupils  and  a  desk  and  a  chair  for  the  teacher,  and  that 
it  has  suitable  means  of  heating  and  ventilating  the  room,  that  fuel, 
chalk,  erasers  and  brooms  are  furnished.  This  list  completes  what 
boards  are  accustomed  to  think  necessary  equipment  for  a  school. 
Some  schools  do  not  fare  even  so  well  as  this.  But  granted  this 
much,  what  can  the  teacher  do  towards  better  equipment  of  her 
school  ? 

We  cannot  put  too  much  emphasis  upon  school  equipment.  If 
a  factory  would  be  content  with  such  bare  equipment  as  that  in  the 
school  described,  it  would  not  be  very  efficient.  In  fact  its  finer  effi- 
ciency depends  upon  the  things  not  mentioned  in  the  previous  para- 
graph. Without  more  equipment  than  is  listed  above,  the  class  exer- 
cises will  be  largely  of  the  textbook  questions  and  answers.  No  teacher 
can  do  her  best  work  without  the  necessary  tools. 

The  library  should  be  a  part  of  every  school's  equipment.  At 
first,  it  should  consist  of  the  most  usable  books,  supplementary  read- 
ers, books  of  historical  and  geographical  references,  a  dictionary,  and 
at  least  one  book  of  general  information,  even  if  it  cannot  be  mom 
than  the  World  Almanac.  Later,  books  of  more  general  reading 
can  be  added.  A  lot  of  money  has  been  wasted  by  teachers  who  did 
not  know  what  books  to  buy.  Once  in  a  while  you  find  in  the  libraries 
such  trash  as  "Ten  Nights  in  a  Bar-room."  If  teachers  will  follow 
suggestions  in  the  Library  Day  Annual,  prepared  by  the  Department 
of  Schools,  they  will  save  money  and  secure  better  books.  It  is  of" 
small  worth  to  buy  books  unless  they  can  be  kept  in  a  case.  This 
case  need  not  be  expensive.  In  nearly  every  school  may  be  found 
one  or  more  boys  who  will  gladly  make  a  library  case,  or  the  neigh- 
borhood carpenter  will  make  a  case  at  small  cost. 

There  should  be  several  wall-maps,  a  globe  and  a  primary  reading- 
chart. 

Boards  of  education  can  easily  be  persuaded  to  supply  these  and 
help  supply  a  library  if  the  matter  is  brought  to  their  attention  I& 
the  right  way.  : 


8 

The  sand  table  is  inexpensive  and  yet  its  possibilities  are  limited 
only  by  the  limitations  of  the  teacher.  Anyone  who  can  secure  a 
few  feet  of  lumber  and  can  use  the  saw  and  hatchet  can  make  a 
sand  table.  Already  a  number  of  rural  teachers  are  using  the  sand 
table  with  fine  results. 

To  set  the  small  pupils  to  cutting  paper  may  set  a-wagging  many 
tongues  of  the  community  who  have  been  used  to  A  B  C  methods 
of  teaching,  but  if  a  teacher  is  skillful  she  will  be  able  to  secure  a 
half  dozen  pairs  of  scissors  and  thus  make  it  possible  for  the  little 
ones  to  forget  many  of  their  troubles  while  cutting  paper.  Are  you 
afraid  to  try  it? 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  suggestions  that  might  be  made.  The 
finer  things  of  the  school  can  be  done  by  means  of  equipment  not 
usually  furnished  by  boards  of  education.  It  will  all  depend  upon 
the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  teacher.  The  catalog  of  A.  Flanagan 
Company,  Chicago;  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  Philadelphia;  Dobson,  Evans 
Co.,  Columbus,  0.;  Virginia  School  Supply  Co.,  Richmond,  Va.,  and 
others  will  be  suggestive  to  teachers,  since  they  make  a  specialty 
Off  such  equipment.  Any  good  book  on  methods  of  teaching  will  aid 
the  teacher.  The  time  has  come  when  merely  assigning  lessons  and 
hearing  recitations  out  of  books  will  not  do.  Such  methods  have 
never  done  well. 

THE  DECORATION  OF  SCHOOL  ROOMS. 

Very  many  children,  during  their  school  lives,  pass  from  5,000 
to  8,000  hours  within  the  school  room.  What  effect,  then,  the  mere 
physical  appearance  of  the  school  room  interior  may  have  upon  the 
child  is  certainly  worthy  of  consideration,  though  to  that  effect  very 
little  thought  has  usually  been  given.  It  is  true  that  in  many  of 
<rar  fine  new  city  buildings  the  matter  is  being  treated  as  carefully 
as  are  the  other  points  that  pertain  to  the  well-being  of  the  child,  but 
in  the  great  number  of  smaller  buildings,  in  the  country  and  in 
little  towns  the  subject  is  practically  ignored. 

To  the  many  earnest  and  faithful  West  Virginia  teachers  who,  by 
their  labors  in  securing  school  libraries,  in  beautifying  school  grounds, 
and  similar  endeavors,  have  shown  their  genuine  interest  and  often- 
times a  real  missionary  spirit  and  devotion,  these  words  are  written, 
in' the  hope  that  they  may  prove  of  some  value  for  suggestion  and 
guidance  to  such  as  may  undertake  some  activities  along  this  ex- 
tremely important  line  of  school  improvement.  For  it  is  not  likely 
that  much  of  this  work  will  be  done  by  the  board  of  education,  upon 
whose  already  overburdened  shoulders  the  responsibility  really  rests. 


In  most  instances,  probably,  whatever  is  done  will  be  another  mark 
of  the  enthusiasm,  industry  and  patience  of  some  humble  and  devoted 
teacher. 

The  Walls. 

An  uncoated,  plastered  wall  is  not  only  an  ugly  and  un- 
attractive thing  to  look  at,  but  it  is  also  an  actual  source  of  injury  to 
the  eye.  Practically  nowhere  in  Nature,  do  we  find  such  an  environ- 
ment facing  us.  Physicians  are  of  the  opinion  that  a  strong  glare 
on  the  eye  for  a  long  time  is  a  source  of  serious  eye  strain,  with 
accompanying  nervousness  and  restlessness.  In  our  homes  we  usually 
strive  to  cover  the  plastered  wall  with  some  appropriate  color. 

The  walls  made  of  wood  ceiling,  which  are  found  in  so  many  of 
our  school  houses,  soon  darken  by  the  natural  change  of  the  wood, 
fio  that  they  are  perhaps  less  harmful  to  the  eye,  but  on  the  other 
hand  are  even  more  ugly  and  unsightly  than  the  plastered  wall.  The 
plastered  wall  may  be  relieved  somewhat  by  pictures  or  other  decora- 
tions, but  the  wooden  wall  is  likely  to  look  the  worse  for  these. 

For  the  plastered  wall  tinted  preparations  of  the  nature  of  the 
one  in  common  use,  called  Alabastine,  are  not  expensive,  are  quite 
durable,  and  come  in  an  excellent  range  and  variety  of  shades.  For 
the  wood  it  is  better  to  use  some  of  the  so-called  "flat"  interior 
paints,  that  is,  paints  with  a  dull  rather  than  a  gloss  surface.  These 
are  more  expensive  than  the  washes,  such  as  the  Alabastine,  but  they 
have  the  advantage  that  when  they  become  soiled  they  can  be  sponged 
off  and  cleansed. 

In  the  choice  of  colors  both  artists  and  physicians  are  pretty  well 
agreed  as  to  what  colors  are  most  suitable.  It  is  a  physiological  fact 
that  the  shades  towards  the  red  end  of  the  color  spectrum  are  more 
irritating  to  the  eye  than  those  near  the  center  of  the  spectrum. 
Therefore  we  should  avoid  such  colors  as  yellow,  orange  and  red. 
The  greeiis,  of  which  there  is  a  wonderful  range  of  tints,  are  both 
artistic,  and  soothing  to  the  eye.  Through  countless  ages  our  eyes 
have  been  getting  accustomed  to  the  various  shades  of  green  in  the 
vegetation  that  surrounds  us  out  of  doors.  Some  buffs  and  light 
browns  and  some  light  shades  of  blue  may  do  for  certain  rooms.  Sug- 
gestions for  color  schemes  will  be  found  in  the  cards  and  other  adver- 
tising matter  issued  by  paint  manufacturers,  but  where  the  teacher, 
with  whatever  assistance  can  be  secured,  undertakes  to  put  on  a 
coat  of  paint  or  other  coating  a  single  tint  properly  selected  will  do 
very  well. 


10 

Pictures. 

A  whole  book  would  not  more  than  suffice  to  treat  adequately  the 
subject  of  the  pictures  in  the  school  room.  A  few  of  the  chapters  of 
Burrage  &  Bailey's  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  treat  of  the 
subject  and  any  teacher  having  access  to  the  book  would  do  well  to 
read  it.  Some  general  suggestions  only  can  be  given  here. 

The  cheap,  highly  colored  pictures  of  many  kinds  that  are  dis- 
tributed free  by  commercial  firms  and  companies  for  advertising 
purposes  are  not  usually  appropriate  or  suitable  for  school  decora- 
tion, although  we  often  see  them  used  for  the  purpose.  Indeed, 
sometimes  school  rooms  are  found  that  have  their  walls  almost  com- 
pletely hidden  by  material  of  this  kind.  Oftentimes  it  is  tacked  or 
nailed  up  to  the  wall  and  the  following  year  will  be  torn  down,  leav- 
ing the  wall  permanently  disfigured  by  the  nails  that  were  used  in 
putting  it  up.  The  decorations  of  a  school  room  ought  to  be  of  suffi- 
cient appropriateness  and  value  to  make  them  worthy  to  remain  on 
the  wall,  when  once  put  there;  if  not  permanently  at  least  not  to  be 
subject  to  removal  except  to  put  something  better  in  their  places. 

Subjects.  While  it  is  better,  in  general,  to  take  our  subjects  from 
the  lists  of  the  paintings  by  artists  whose  merit  is  generally  recog- 
nized and  acknowledged,  still,  it  must  be  remembered  that  not  every- 
thing of  this  type  is  suitable  for  school  decoration.  On  account  of  the 
nature  of  the  subject,  or  for  other  reasons,  there  are  many  paintings 
by  the  old  masters  which  are  not  nearly  so  well  suited  to  a  school 
room  as  would  be  some  less  known  pictures  by  modern  painters. 

The  pictures  for  a  single  grade  of  a  city  school  can  be  selected  with 
reference  to  the  interests  of  children  of  about  the  same  age,  while  an 
ungraded  or  one-room  school  will  have  the  varying  interests  of  children 
of  all  ages.  However,  there  are  still  certain  groups  of  subjects  that 
are  safe  in  any  case. 

The  mother  and  the  child,  exemplifying  mother-love;  scenes  of 
home  life  in  the  house,  the  yard,  or  the  field;  man's  relations  with 
the  animal  world,  either  of  domestic  or  wild  animal  life;  animal  life 
without  reference  to  man;  the  Christ-life,  and  other  Biblical  scenes; 
many  views  of  land  and  water;  any  of  these,  properly  selected  are 
likely  to  present  the  elements  of  interest  which  will  lead  under  proper 
guidance  to  the  love  for  art.  Such  things  abound  in  the  paintings 
of  the  earlier  and  later  masters.  Millet,  Murillo,  Breton,  Dupre, 
Keynolds  and  many  other  signatures  will  be  found  beneath  pictures 
whose  subject  matter  is  exactly  suited  to  the  purposes  of  the  school 
room. 


11 

Kinds  of  Reproductions.  The  common  penny  pictures  have  many 
uses  in  the  school  room,  but  they  are  not  usually  well  suited  for  wall 
decoration.  Besides  their  small  size,  they  are  usually  of  the  sort  of 
reproductions  known  as  half-tones,  which  are  not  very  good  for  the 
purpose.  This  is  the  kind  of  work  we  find  in  most  magazine  pic- 
tures, which,  while  satisfactory  for  that  kind  of  illustrating,  does  not 
bring  out  the  lights  and  shadows  and  tone  values  of  pictures  enough 
for  the  purposes  of  wall  decoration.  Many  publishers  get  out  repro- 
ductions of  the  general  type  of  photogravures  that  are  far  better 
suited  to  the  purpose.  They  come  mostly  in  blacks  and  browns,  and 
are  true  to  the  originals  as  well  as  being  ai'tistic  and  permanent.  In 
sizes  suitable  for  school  use  they  can  be  had  at  prices  ranging  from  a 
dollar  to  a  considerably  smaller  amount,  depending  upon  size. 

Sizes.  A  picture  of  the  size  of  22x28  is  large  enough  for  almost 
any  ordinary  school  room,  while  in  subjects  in  which  there  is  not 
too  much  detail  such  sizes  as  20x24,  16x20  and  even  smaller,  are 
often  convenient  and  satisfactory.  A  large  wall  space  naturally  re- 
quires a  larger  picture  than  a  smaller  space,  which  enables  us  often- 
times to  use  various  sizes  of  pictures  for  a  pleasing  effect  in  the  same 
room.  Sometimes  quite  a  small  subject,  properly  chosen,  is  just  the 
thing  for  a  narrow  space  between  two  windows  and  here  long  panel 
shaped  pictures  are  oftentimes  especially  effective. 

Framing.  It  is  very  rarely  that  we  find  an  unframed  picture  in 
a  refined  home.  It  would  certainly  seem  as  out  of  place  in  a  school 
room. 

Probably  the  best  thing  that  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  buy  his  pic- 
tures already  framed,  although  there  are  some  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  doing  this.  For  instance,  the  ordinary  dealers  in  the  country 
and  small  towns  do  not  have  very  carefully  selected  stocks,  but  buy 
in  quantities,  pictures  that  have  been  selected  almost  at  random  by 
the  manufacturers  who  frame  them,  without  much  regard  to  the  sub- 
ject, the  painter,  the  merit  of  the  reproduction  or  anything  else. 
T,liey  are  especially  likely  to  have  cheap  and  highly  colored,  even 
gaudy  reproductions  of  paintings  by  artists  little  known  and  perhaps 
of  small  ability.  A  person  who  knows  for  what  he  is  looking  may 
occasionally  find  in  these  collections  some  subjects  that  he  wants,  and 
that  are  worth  having.  Then  the  frames  themselves  are  oftentimes 
very  flashy  and  cheap,  the  gaudy  effects  covering  all  sorts  of  defects 
of  workmanship  and  art. 

Many  small  towns,  and  nearly  all  large  ones,  have  men  who  frame 
pictures  as  a  business  and  can  do  simple  jobs  of  framing  fairly  well. 


12 

To  these,  however,  the  teacher1  ought  to  be  able  to  give  definite  in- 
structions as  to  width  and  style  of  moulding,  width  of  margins,  etc. 

A  teacher  with  some  mechanical  and  artistic  conceptions  if  pro- 
vided with  the  proper  tools  and  materials  can  oftentimes  teach  him- 
self to  frame  pictures,  which  art  will  not  only  enable  him  to  furnish 
his  school  house  with  much  less  expense,  but  will  also  be  a  means  of 
making  some  little  extra  money,  for  in  almost  every  community  there 
are  people  who  want  pictures  framed. 

A  Marsh  mitre  machine  for  cutting  the  moulding  can  be  had  for 
about  $10.00.  This  can  be  used  in  other  departments  of  wood- work- 
ing and  carpentry.  As  to  materials  he  will  need  the  following: 

Moulding,  in  two  or  three  widths.  This  can  be  bought  either  al- 
ready finished  in  various  colors,  or  "raw,"  that  is,  unfinished,  the 
stain  to  be  applied  by  the  framer,  at  prices  ranging  from  2  cents  to 
8  cents  a  foot.  Stains  already  prepared  and  easily  applied  can  be 
had  for  this  purpose.  One  advantage  is  that  the  framer  does  not 
have  to  carry  so  large  a  stock  of  mouldings,  which  he  would  need 
otherwise  in  various  colors. 

Glass.  An  amateur  had  better  confine  his  frames  to  two  or  three 
standard  sizes,  as  say  22x28,  12x20,  11x14,  for  which  he  can  get 
glass  already  cut  from  any  dealer.  Irregular  sizes  will  cost  more. 
The  framer  can  soon  learn  to  cut  glass  of  any  size  he  wishes,  how- 
ever, with  some  practice,  and  for  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  he 
can  get  a  very  good  cutter. 

Backing.  The  manufacturers  make  special  backing  for  filling  in 
behind  the  pictures,  for  protection,  etc.  Ordinary  cardboard  will 
not  do,  for  it  will  warp  and  the  picture  will  follow  it  and  twist  out 
of  shape. 

Miscellaneous.  Screw  eyes,  picture  wire,  tacks  and  nails  are  kept 
at  the  hardware  stores.  The  openings  and  cracks  between  frame  and 
backing  at  the  back  ought  to  be  pasted  to  keep  out  the  dust  and  grime 
which  will  slowly  work  its  way  down  inside  the  front  of  the  picture. 
Some  mat-board  should  be  kept  for  mounting  an  occasional  picture 
which  comes  unmounted.  This  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  difficult 
things  that  the  framer  has  to  do,  and  he  should,  whenever  possible, 
buy  his  pictures  mounted  on  the  mat-board  in  exactly  the  form  he 
wishes  to  use  them. 

Suggestions.  The  frame  should  be  cut  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
larger  than  the  picture  so  that  if  the  picture  gets  damp  and  swells  it 
will  have  room  for  expansion.  A  beginner  will  do  well  to  start  with 
small  frames,  of  narrow  moulding,  say  1  inch  or  1  1-2  inches.  Many 


13 

of  the  two  and  three  inch  mouldings  are  so  thin  that  it  is  extremely 
hard  to  get  a  nail  through  them  without  splitting  them.  A  Yankee 
spiral  punch  or  drill,  is  useful  for  drilling  before  nailing  thin  mould- 
ings. Many  writers  advocate  close  framing — that  is,  without  a  mar- 
gin for  the  picture,  but  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  after  extended 
practice  and  observation,  that  a  properly  adjusted  margin  of  white 
mat-board  or  occasionally  some  harmonious  shade  gives  the  best  effect 
for  many  pictures,  especially  pictures  in  which  there  is  much  detail. 
The  width  of  the  margin,  however,  is  very  important.  It  does  not 
look  well  if  too  wide,  nor  if  too  narrow.  Ordinarily  it  should  be  of 
the  same  width  around,  although  in  some  instances  if  slightly  wider 
at  the  bottom  the  effect  is  good. 

If  the  little  penny  pictures  are  used  at  all,  they  may  be  very  cheaply 
framed  with  the  passe-partout,  in  which  form  they  are  far  more  effect- 
ive than  when  unframed.  In  some  instances  several  of  these  may  be 
mounted  with  proper  grouping  on  one  mat-board,  and  all  framed 
together. 

Casts. 

Where  the  room  has  a  shelf  or  other  projection  suitable  for  their 
reception  plaster  casts  make  a  very  interesting  decoration.  The  man- 
ufacturers also  sell  pedestals  and  wall  brackets  suitable  for  the  recep- 
tion of  these,  although  this  will  add  considerably  to  the  expense. 

The  casts  should  be  procured  in  the  ivory  finish.  Eeproductions 
of  almost  all  the  famous  sculptures  of  the  world  can  be  had  in  this 
form,  at  prices  that  are  reasonably  low.  Some  small  pieces  that 
would  do  very  well  for  the  purpose  would  not  cost  over  a  dollar.  The 
price,  however,  increases  rapidly  with  the  size. 

Bambini,  by  Delia  Eobbia,  The  Madonnas  by  various  sculptors, 
'and  many  other  pieces  can  be  had  in  friezes,  or  bas-relief  casts,  ready 
to  hang  in  some  suitable  space  on  the  wall  just  as  a  picture  is  hung. 

Flowers. 

At  many  seasons  of  the  year  the  teacher  can  have  either  growing 
flowers  or  cut  flowers  on  her  table  or  elsewhere  in  the  room,  and  cer- 
tainly nothing  will  add  more  to  its  beauty.  Unfortunately  the  vari- 
ability of  the  temperature  of  the  ordinary  school  room  prevents  the 
keeping  of  potted  flowers  there  at  all  times.  Still,  the  schools  that 
begin  early  can  have  flowers  in  the  room  the  greater  part  of  the  term, 
if  the  teacher  so  desires  it  and  will  take  the  trouble. 

In  some  of  the  dusty,  dirty,  unkempt  and  disordered  school  rooms 


14 

that  we  so  often  find  in  West  Virginia,  is  it  any  wonder  that  so  much 
of  our  attempted  instruction  goes  for  naught?  A  teacher  who  will 
find  the  way  to  reconstruct  such  an  interior  and  to  remake  it  into  a 
clean,  harmoniously  colored  room  with  its  walls  adorned  with  suit- 
able reproductions  of  the  world's  best  art  is  certainly  bringing  an  en- 
vironment around  the  school  that  will  silently  but  powerfully  re- 
enforce  her  teaching,  and  may  give  some  lessons  which,  no  matter 
how  good  a  teacher  she  may  be,  are  without  her  power. 
Dealers  who  are  believed  to  be  satisfactory  are  as  follows: 

Moulding  and  Framing  Supplies,  etc.: 

D.  E.  Abbott  &  Co.,  Huntington,  W.  Va. 
The  H.  Lieber  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
S.  S.  Moore  &  Co.,  Charleston,  W.  Va. 

Pictures : 

Perry  Picture  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass. 
Geo.  P.  Brown  &  Co.,  Beverly,  Mass. 
Bureau  of  University  Travel,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  A.  W.  Elson  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Horace  K.  Turner  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  Taber-Prang  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass. 

The  first  three  picture  dealers  listed  make  a  specialty  of 
"penny  pictures,"  etc.  The  next  two  make  a  specialty  of  traveling 
exhibits,  but  also  sell  pictures.  The  last  has  a  fine  line  of  all  sorts 
of  good  pictures  at  reasonable  prices.  W.  A.  Wilde  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass.,  have  a  nice  line  of  small  colored  biblical  pictures. 

Casts: 

P.  P.  Caproni  &  Bro.,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  C.  Hennecke  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Out  of  the  many  approved  subjects  in  pictures  a  few  are  as 
follows : 

Madonna  of  the  Chair ^Raphael 

Rest  in  Flight Ivnaus 

Children  of  the  Shell Murillo 

Baby  Stuart Van  Dyck 

Age  of  Innocence  Reynolds 

Feeding  Her  Birds Millet 

By  the  Riverside Le  Rolle 

Shepherdess  Knitting Millet 

The  Knitting  Lesson .Millet 


15 

Caritas  Thayer 

Member  of  the  Humane  Society Landseer 

The  Connoisseurs   Landseer 

The  Blacksmith   Frere 

The  Escaped  Cow Dupre 

The  Sistine  Madonna   Raphael 

Madonna  and  Child    Dagnan-Bouveret 

Children  of  Charles  1 Reynolds 

The  Shepherdess  LeRolle 

The  Gleaners   Millet 

At  the  Watering  Trough  Dagnan-Bouveret 

Automedon  and  the  Horses  of  Achilles  .  .  Regnault 

The  Horse  Fair Bonheur 

The  Aurora Guido  Reni 

Kabyl   Shreyer 

Pilgrims  Going  to  Church Boughton 

Paysage Corot 

Joan  of  Arc Bastien  Le  Page 

Queen  Louise  Richtef* 

Sir  Galahad  . . . Watts 

The  Hay  Maker   Adan 

The  Sower   Millet 

Dance  of  the  Nymphs Corot 

The  Golden  Stair  Burne-Jones 

Washington Stuart 

A  Reading  from  Homer  Alma-Tadema 

Princes  in  the  Tower Millais 

The  Last  Supper da  Vinci 

Can't  You  Talk Holmes 

A  Helping  Hand Renouf 

Monarch  of  the  Glen  Landseer 

A  Halt  in  the  Oasis  Shreyer 

Angels'  Heads   Reynolds 

Christ  in  the  Temple Hofmann 

The  Broken  Pitcher   Greuze 

The  Infant  St.  John Murillo 

Arrival  of  the  Shepherds LeRolle 

Leaving  the  Hills  Farquharson 

Return  to  the  Farm' Troyon 

Close  of  Day  Adan 

The  Infant  Samuel Reynolds 


16 


Song  of  the  Lark  Breton 

Amiens  Cathedral 

St.  Mark's  Cathedral 

Notre  Dame  Cathedral 

Milan   Cathedral    

Cologne  Cathedra!   

The   Colosseum    

The  Doge's  Palace 

The  Rialto   .  


SANITATION. 

Two  mottoes  that  are  often  seen  -exemplify  the  change  that  has 
come  over  man's  whole  attitude  towards  his  life,  so  far  as  relates  to 
the  question  as  to  whether  his  condition  in  that  life  is  to  be  of  health 
and  strength  or  of  weakness  and  disease. 

Not  long  since  the  favorite  motto  that  adorned  our  walls  was 
the  familiar  "God  Bless  Our  Home,"  executed  in  every  variety  of 
lettering  and  color.  The  motto  was,  we  might  say,  about  half 
right.  We  needed,  and  we  still  need,  all  the  care  that  can  be 
bestowed  for  our  protection  by  an  all-seeing  and  loving  Divine 
Being,  but  we  were  too  apt  to  put  all  of  the  responsibility  and  care 
on  the  all-carrying  shoulders  of  Providence.  If  while  we  sat  in 
ease  and  comfort,  disease  struck  us,  with  its  torturous  course  leav- 
ing us  in  weakness  or  in  death,  it  was  Providence  that  was  at  fault, 
and  we  put  forth  many  a  solemn  wail  at  the  mysterious  and  devious 
ways  of  the  Providence  of  God. 

Still,  a  little  labor  would  have  covered  the  cess-pool  that  bred 
the  typhoid  carrying  fly,  or  drained  the  pond  in  which  the  malaria 
bringing  mosquito  as  a  "wiggle-tail"  spent  his  active  youth,  or 
have  cleaned  out  the  lurking  germs  of  the  dread  white  plague,  left 
by  some  earlier  victims  of  tuberculosis. 

It  might  be  stretching  it  a  little  to  dignify  it  with  the  name  of 
a  motto,  but  the  legend  that  we  see  so  oftentimes  nowadays,  in  so 
many  places,  might  be  worthy  of  the  name.  At  any  rate  we  surely 
can  do  no  better  than  put  into  action  its  command,  and  whenever 
we  have  the  opportunity  "Swat  the  Fly/'  Without  any  doubt 
when  we  are  doing  this  we  are  doing  something  that  really  is  far 
more  likely  to  defend  our  physical  well-being  than  we  are  in 
plastering  our  walls  with  mottoes  of  the  old  type. 

For  modern  science  is  taking  the  position  that  disease  has  causes 
that  are  removable  and  preventable,  and  is,  therefore,  unnecessary. 


17 

We  are  learning  what  agencies  carry  and  spread  each  kind  of 
illness,  whether  it  is  the  fly  that  is  the  noxious  agent  or  the 
mosquito,  or  the  flea,  or  the  wind,  or  the  water.  We  believe  that  by 
the  destruction  of  the  germs  at  their  source,  all  diseases  that  pass 
from  one  person  to  another  can  be  controlled.  Other  diseases  that 
are  brought  to  the  individual  not  directly  from  some  other  individual 
but  from  the  widespread  contamination  of  waters  and  soils,  will  be 
prevented  by  stopping  the  infection  of  these  things  and  by  a  more 
widespread  diffusion  of  the  knowledge  of  treatment  of  wounds,  and 
of  the  laws  of  health  in  general.  Diseases  that  originate  within  the 
individual  from  the  misuse  of  the  various  organs  in  wrong  habits 
of  life,  as  for  instance  dyspepsia  from  wrong  habits  of  eating  or 
wrong  kinds  of  food,  shall  be  made  to  yield  to  right  habits  of  life, 
about  which  we  are  coming  to  know  more,  and  sickness  will  be 
practically  at  an  end. 

These  things  are  not  an  idle  dream;  they  are  practical  scientific 
possibilities.  The  adopted  textbooks  in  hygiene,  sanitation  and 
physiology  give  a  fine  lot  of  information  that  should  be  used 
to  this  end;  but  physiological  knowledge  is  one  of  ithe  most  useless 
kinds  of  knowledge,  merely  as  knowledge,  just  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  kinds  of  knowledge  when  applied.  The  teacher 
should  have  a  burning  enthusiasm  for  knowledge  of  this  sort,  should 
seek  it  and  acquire  it  from  all  possible  sources,  and  in  all  cases 
should  be  in  her  school  and  in  her  community  a  tireless  missionary 
of  the  great  gospel  of  good  health. 

The  teacher  should  above  all  things  else  try  to.  control  the  health 
conditions  of  her  school  room.  The  room  should  be  clean  and  every 
known  sanitary  principle  within  her  power  should  be  applied.  For 
instance,  the  best  air  there  is  is  that  out  of  doors,  and  the  one  general 
principle  of  ventilation  is  to  bring  this  air  in  as  freely  as  is  possible. 
Every  dust  mote  may  be  the  aeroplane  of  a  jolly  party  of  germs, 
ambitious  to  make  explorations  and  settlements  in  some  child's 
nose  or  mouth  or  lungs.  Therefore  the  dust  mote  should  reach  the 
ground  outside  otherwise  than  by  flight  through  the  air.  Black- 
boards should  be  cleaned  outside  of  school  hours  in  order  to  reduce  the 
danger  from  chalk  dust.  A  dozen  kinds  of  germs  are  lurking  in  the 
common  drinking  cup,  and  the  weakest,  the  strongest,  or  the  dearest 
child  of  the  school  may  be  the  next  object  of  attack  by  a  colony  of 
the  most  deadly  germs.  For  each  child  to  have  his  own  cup  is  little 
trouble. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  things  the  teacher  should  make  his 


18 

daily  thought.  NOT  should  the  teacher's  efforts  be  confined  to  the 
school.  Unhygienic  habits  of  life  in  the  child's  family  at  home  will 
often  yield  to  the  tactful  talk  of  the  teacher  to  the  child.  A  teacher 
who  might  finally  have  this  epitaph:  "Each  community  in  which 
she  taught  she  left  a  stronger  and  healthier  one,"  would  certainly 
deservedly  rank  as  a  great  teacher. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  furnish  the  rules  and 
principles  for  such  a  work.  Elsewhere  must  these  be  sought;  in 
the  physiologies ;  from  medical  works;  from  the  physicians;  and 
from  many  other  sources.  It  is  hoped,  merely,  that  many  teachers 
from  reading  this  article  may  have  a  stronger  sense  of  duty  and  a 
keener  desire  for  this  particular  kind  of  service. 

GRADING  AND  PROMOTIONS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  carrying  out  instructions  in  this 
course  of  study  will  be  the  grading  of  the  pupils.  And  yet  it  is  a 
rather  simple  matter  as  a  general  proposition.  Its  difficulty  is 
found  in  applying  the  general  principle  to  particular  pupils. 

Suppose  you  have  a  school  that  has  never  been  graded,  or  at 
least  has  been  only  very  poorly  graded.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
determine  what  pupils  should  be  in  the  first  grade.  Of  course  all 
who  are  just  starting  to  school  for  the  first  time  will  be  in  that  grade. 
Normally  we  would  expect  them  to  be  six  years  of  age.  But  some 
of  them  may  be  seven  or  eight  years  of  age. 

Furthermore,  there  will  likely  be  some  who  have  been  in  school  one 
or  two  years,  but,  because  of  irregular  attendance,  poor  teach- 
ing or  dullness  on  their  part,  have  not  learned  enough  of  the  first 
grade  work  to  do  the  work  of  the  second  grade.  These  will  also 
be  in  the  first  grade.  Once  it  is  determined  what  pupils  will  do  the 
work  of  the  first  year,  you  have  your  first  grade  organized.  Then 
you  go  to  the  course  of  study  and  find  just  what  work  these  pupils 
will  do.  Similarly  the  teacher  will  organize  the  pupils  into  classes 
of  the  second  grade,  third  grade,  and  so  on  up  through  the  eight 
grades,  if  all  the  grades  are  represented.  And  by  referring  to  the 
course  of  study  the  teacher  can  tell  just  what  work  each  grade  will 
do  and  what  books  they  will  study. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  teacher  in  the  state  will  hereafter  disre- 
gard the  course  of  study  and  go  on  in  the  old  way  of  trying  to  teach 
each  pupil  in  a  class  by  himself.  Even  during  the  past  year  teach- 
ers have  been  found  with  as  many  as  a  dozen  classes  in  arithmetic, 
each  pupil  working  by  himself  and  going  as  far  each  day  as  he 


19 

could  work  the  examples  or  solve  the  problems.  Such  individual 
teaching  might  not  be  very  bad  if  properly  done,  but  no  teacher 
has  time  to  do  this.  Some  of  the  pupils  will  be  neglected  and  the 
neglect  usually  comes  to  the  smaller  ones  who  really  need  most  at- 
tention. 

Once  the  school  is  graded  the  matter  of  promoting  next  claims  at- 
tention. Normally  the  first  grade  would  be  promoted  to  the  second 
grade  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  second  to  the  third  and  so  on  up 
to  the  eighth  grade,  who  would  receive  their  diplomas.  But  it  does 
not  always  work  out  so  in  actual  practice.  Some  pupils  will  do  bet- 
ter than  others.  The  test  for  promotion  should  always  be  ability  of 
the  pupil  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  If  at  any  time 
a  pupil  can  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade,  he  should  be 
promoted.  This  situation  will  not  often  arise  unless  there  be  pupils 
whose  age  would  normally  place  them  in  a  higher  grade.  In  such 
cases  the  pupils  should  be  given  a  trial  in  the  grade  of  their  age, 
or  the  grade  next  above  the  one  in  which  they  have  been  placed.  It 
may  be  that  a  teacher  will  misjudge  a  pupil's  ability  to  do. the  work 
of  a  given  grade  and  place  him  in  a  grade  too  high.  [This  misjudg- 
ment  is  all  the  more  likely  where  poor  records  of  the  pupil's  work 
have  been  kept,  the  teacher  being  compelled  to  rely  on  the  pupil's 
statement  or  a  brief  oral  examination.  In  such  case  the  pupil 
should,  after  a  fair  trial,  be  placed  in  the  next  lower  grade. 

The  classification  of  pupils  by  grades  is  a  means  of  economizing 
the  time  and  energy  of  the  teacher.  The  chief  reason  why  grading 
is  important  in  a  rural  school  is  that  a  teacher  can  in  fifteen  minutes 
teach  a  half  dozen  pupils  more  and  better  in  a  class  than  if  she  gives 
each  of  them  2~y2  minutes  separately.  And  since  the  rural  teacher 
has  from  six  to  eight  grades,  it  is  the  only  way  she  can  distribute 
her  time  so  as  to  get  the  best  results  in  the  short  time  at  her  dis- 
posal. Furthermore  there  is  something,  to  be  gained  by  the  associa- 
tion of  pupils  in  a  class.  They  learn  from  one  another  and  have  a 
means  of  measuring  their  attainments  with  those  of  their  fellows. 

EXAMINATIONS  AND  THE  FREE  SCHOOL  DIPLOMA. 

There  should  be  no  written  examinations  for  promotion  below  the 
fourth  or  fifth  grade.  There  may  be  written  exercises  of  the  nature 
of  examinations.  Even  then  and  thereafter  promotion  should  not 
be  determined  wholly  by  the  results  of  the  examinations.  The  teach- 
er should  keep  in  mind  always  that  the  true  test  for  promotion  is 
ability  to  do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade.  The  examination, 


20 

therefore,  should  be  only  one  means  of  determining  this  ability. 
The  examination  should  be  a  fair  test  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of 
the  work  he  has  been  doing,  and  at  the  same  time  should  be  a  test 
of  the  pupil's  ability  to  generalize  from  this  knowledge  and  apply 
it  to  new  situations. 

The  final  examination  for  the  free  school  diploma  will  be  pre- 
pared by  the  State  Superintendent.  This  examination  will  aim  to 
test  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  elementary  subjects.  It  will  de- 
termine first,  whether  or  not  the  pupil  has  received  all  from  the 
elementary  grades  that  it  is  worth  while  to  get,  and  second,  whether 
or  not  he  is  prepared  to  do  the  work  of  the  first  year  in  high  school. 

The  free  school  diploma  is  serving  as  a  fine  incentive  for  pupils 
to  complete  the  elementary  grades,  especially  where  a  high  school 
is  within  reach  of  the  pupils.  Teachers  will  be  rendering  a  great 
service  not  only  to  their  pupils  but  also  to  the  state  by  acquainting 
the  boys  and  girls  with  the  value  of  finishing  the  course  and  re- 
ceiving the  diploma.  To  develop  the  habit  of  finishing  a  task  once 
begun  is  an  essential  step  toward  success  in  life.  Winning  pro- 
motions year  by  year  and  finally  this  diploma  will  be  a  valuable 
contribution  toward  fixing  such  a  habit. 

MTERARY  EXERCISES. 

Every  school  ought  to  make  some  provision  for  so-called  "liter- 
ary work"  or  "literary  exercises."  It  is  perhaps  best  for  certain 
reasons  to  have  this  .done  in  the  school  under  the  supervision  of  the 
teacher,  but  if  there  is  sufficient  interest  among  the  patrons  to  main- 
tain a  good  literary  society,  meeting  in  the  school  house  at  night,  it 
is  well  to  organize  it.  The  literary  exercises  of  the  school  cannot 
assume  that  breadth  of  scope  which  the  literary  society  for  the  whole 
community  does,  because  of  the  immaturity  of  its  members. 

The  school  should,  in  a  measure  at  least,  become  a  social  center  for 
the  district.  The  regular  meetings  of  a  literary  society  furnish  the 
opportunity  and  occasion  for  the  patrons  of  the  school  to  meet  and 
discuss  the  subjects  that  are  of  interest  to  them.  It  affords  the 
teacher  also  an  opportunity  to'  meet  the  patrons,  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  them,  to  explain  the  work  of  the  school,  to  interest 
them  in  its  work,  and  to  enlist  their  co-operation. 

There  will  always  be  in  every  community  those  whose  ability  and 
information  fit  them  to  discuss  the  larger  questions  of  the.  day.  They 
bring  to  these  discussions  the  results  of  their  own  experience  and 
knowledge  of  affairs,  and  the  younger  members  of  the  society  profit 


21 

greatly  by  hearing  them.  In  this  way  the  literary  society  renders  both 
an  intellectual  and  a  social  service. 

The  work  of; the  school  is  quite  largely  a  work  of  acquiring,  of 
taking  in,  of  impression.  In  earlier  years  the  mind's  ability  to 
take  in  exceeds  its  power  to  give  out.  And  yet  the  power  to  express 
is  the  practical  power  to  the  adult.  It  is  the  man  who  has  been 
trained  to  express  himself  who  becomes  the  leader  of  others.  It 
was  said  of  David  Page,  the  first  principal  of  the  Albany  (N.  Y.) 
Normal  School,  that  one  of  his  chief  traits  was  his  ability  to  think 
and  to  express  his  thought,  "while  standing  on  his  feet  before 
folks."  This  power  like  every  other  may  be  stronger  in  some  than 
in  others,  but  in  every  case  it  is  developed  by  experience  and  trial. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  work  of  this  kind  is  easier 
for  children  in  their  earlier  years  than  it  is  later.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult for  one  who  has  reached  maturity  without  having  had  any 
training  in  public  speaking  to  make  the  first  attempt.  As  pupils 
enter  the  period  of  adolescence  they  become  more  self-conscious  and 
it  is  more  difficult  for  them  to  respond  to  such  requirements. 

The  work,  so  far  as  it  is  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  should 
be  carefully  supervised.  Pupils  left  to  themselves  are  apt  to  select 
readings,  recitations,  etc.,  with  reference  to  some  vein  of  humor 
which  is  apt  to  be  coarse.  The  literary  work  should  aid  in  the  appre- 
ciation of  good  literature.  To  this  end  the  teacher  should  help  the 
pupil  to  select  his  material  from  writers  of  known  ability  and  repu- 
tation. The  fact  that  material  of  this  kind  can  be  used  in  the  literary 
work  furnishes  a  stronger  motive  for  the  careful  memorizing  of 
select  poems  and  other  selections  from  literature. 

The  exercises  of  most  value  to  the  pupil,  however,  are  those  which 
call  upon  him  to  work  up  in  his  own  way  the  material  which  he 
may  have  accumulated  on  any  subject.  This  is  original  work. 
Theme  writing  is  to  literature  and  reading  what  the  laboratory  is 
to  scientific  study.  It  is  the  means  of  working  up  into  usable  form 
the  materials  which  one  collects.  Hence  the  essay,  oration,  or  writ- 
ten debate  is  valuable  in  developing  the  original  power  of  the  pupil 
and  teaches  him  to  arrange  his  ideas  and  express  them  in  the  most 
forcible  way. 

In  many  schools  literary  societies  are  organized,  which  elect  their 
own  officers,  construct  their  own  programs  and  conduct  their  entire 
•exercises.  These  societies  are  always,  of  course,  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  the  teacher.  They  have  this  advantage,  that  they  give 
pupils  a  practical  training  in  the  conduct  of  public  bodies,  and 


make  them,  to  some  extent,  familiar  with  some  of  the  principles  of 
parliamentary  law. 

Teachers  are  strongly  advised  to  write  the  Department  of  Schools, 
Charleston,  requesting  a  copy  of  a  Handbook,  containing  Suggestions 
and  Programs  for  Community  Social  Gatherings  at  Eural  School 
Houses. 

READING  CIRCLE  WORK. 

The  idea  of  the  Teacher's  Beading  Circle  arose  some  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years  ago,  and  it  has  been  one  of  thf  prominent  factors  in 
arousing  interest  in,  and  developing  the  study  of,  the  professional 
side  of  the  teacher's  work.  It  is  a  matter  for  congratulation  that 
with  so  little  organization  to  push  the  work  in  this  state,  so  large  a 
number  of  the  teachers  read  and  study  the  books  recommended  each 
year.  Every  teacher  in  the  state  ought  to  be  an  enrolled  member  of 
the  Circle.  A  few  reasons  follow  why  this  should  be  done. 

The  value  of  the  Eeading  Circle  work  to  the  teacher  lies  first  in 
this,  that  it  selects  his  professional  books  for  him.  The  texts  recom- 
imended  for  study  from  year  to  year  are  selected  with  especial 
care  both  as  to  their  treatment  of  the  subject  and  as  to  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  needs  of  the  teachers  of  the  state.  They  can  be  depended 
upon  as  being  sound  in  their  teaching,  and  they  are  selected  with 
reference  to  the  particular  needs  of  our  own  state.  Many  books  are 
examined  before  a  selection  is  made.  With  the  great  multiplicity  of 
books  on  educational  subjects  now  coming  from  the  press,  the  mat- 
ter of  proper  selection  of  one's  professional  reading  is  of  great 
importance  to  the  teacher. 

Second.  Every  teacher,  whether  he  has  had  a  normal  course  or 
not,  must  read  some  educational  books  in  order  to  grow  profes- 
sionally. No  teacher  can  long  continue  to  do  successful  work  who 
is  not  keeping  up  with  the  progress  in  his  profession. 

This  progress  has  been  so  rapid  in  recent  years  that  it  requires 
the  teacher  to  be  on  the  alert  all  the  time.  Ten  years  has  seen  almost 
a  complete  change  in  the  view  of  the  purpose  of  the  school  and  of  the 
methods  of  attaining  that  purpose.  These  changes  are  reflected  in 
the  more  recent  books  and  literature  and,  therefore,  they  are  the 
sources  to  which  teachers  must  go  for  their  own  knowledge  of  the 
progress  and  current  tendencies  in  education.  Constant  reading 
of  the  literature  of  the  profession  is  necessary  to  one's  professional 
growth. 

Third.    The  aim  in  the  Eeading  Circle  work  is  to  select  books  from 


23 

i 

year  to  year  so  as  to  present  different  phases  of  education  or  differ- 
ent fields  of  study.  The  history  of  education,  psychology,  method 
and  the  general  principles  of  teaching,  all,  by  this  means,  receive  their 
proper  consideration  and  the  teacher's  professional  reading  maintains 
a  balance  and  proportion  which  it  otherwise  might  not  have. 

Fourth.  By  the  purchase  from  year  to  year  of  the  books  recom- 
mended for  reading,  one  soon  accumulates  a  library  of  well-selected 
professional  books  with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar.  Frequent 
reading  and  study  of  these  works  help,  at  least,  to  furnish  clearer 
ideas  of  the  purposes  of  the  public  school  and  of  the  processes  of 
educating  the  child.  The  more  clearly  these  purposes  and  processes 
are  seen  the  more  direct  become  the  efforts  of  the  teacher  and  the 
better  are  the  results  of  his  teaching.  In  other  words,  careful  study 
of  the  books  prescribed  in  the  Reading  Circle  will  tend  to  more  effi- 
cient work  by  the  teacher. 

PLAY. 

Certainly  every  teacher  in  our  remotest  country  school  has  heard 
of  the  importance  of  teaching  children,  and  even  adults,  by  beginning 
with  what  they  already  know.  This  is  a  widely  recognized  principle 
and  should  be  applied  in  every  phase  of  school  room  work.  Play  is 
one  of  the  instincts  found  in  the  early  development  of  child  life.  It 
is  only  the  abnormal,  or  very  exceptional  child  who  enters  school  with 
little  or  no  knowledge  of  spontaneous  play,  and  of  a  few  simple  games. 
Hence,  this  elementary  knowledge  of  games  will  serve  as  a  good  start- 
ing point  for  teaching.  Each  teacher  should,  early  in  the  term,  ascer- 
tain what  games  the  pupils  know,  what  ones  they  like,  and  how  skill- 
fully they  can  play  them.  These  facts  will  throw  much  light  upon 
the  mental  habits  of  the  pupils  and  upon  their  skill  in  motor  control, 
two  facts  which  the  teacher  must  know  before  he  can  do  effective 
teaching.  If  the  young  pupil  has  a  particular  desire  to  play  ball  it  is 
quite  probable  that  you  can  teach  him  this  word  much  more  easily 
than  a  word  which  does  not  appeal  to  his  interests.  If  the  pupil  lacks 
motor  control  you  may  be  able  to  discover  some  physical  defect,  which, 
if  not  attended  to,  will  seriously  impair  mental  development;  that  is, 
the  teacher  may  be  able  to  discover  a  defect  in  seeing,  or  hearing. 
There  are  other  reasons,  however,  why  the  teacher  should  give  atten- 
tion to  play.  The  main  ones  are  recreation  and  sport. 

Games  have  a  positive  educational  influence  in  the  development  of 
the  individual.  The  child  who  is  dull,  slow,  and  timid,  and  seems  to 
hesitate  before  acting  upon  external  stimuli  often  undergoes  a  com- 


plete  change  under  the  influence  of  carefully  planned  or  spontaneous 
games.  His  sense  of  perception  is  cultivated  by  learning  to  see  the 
ball  when  it  is  coming  towards  him,  to  make  the  proper  muscular 
reaction  with  the  bat,  to  hear  the  footsteps  behind  him,  to  recognize 
and  respond  quickly  to  all  the  stimuli  around  him.  If  he  is  excelled 
by  pupils  of  his  own  age  and  seeming  strength  his  motive  will  be 
strong  for  improvement.  The  awkward  pupil  has  strong  reasons 
for  developing  activity  and  grace. 

Many  children  who  are  timid  and  backward  owing  to  certain  home 
environment  naturally  shrink  from  society.  They  lack  self-confidence 
and  hesitate  to  trust  others.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  those  who 
are  bold,  over-confident,  and  self-assertive.  Nothing  is  a  better  level- 
ler for  these  two  cases  than  games  which  require  co-operation.  The 
timid  child  gains  self-respect  and  confidence,  and  the  boisterous  one 
learns  that  he  cannot  secure  results  without  the  co-operation  of  his 
playfellows. 

Many  children  come  from  families  in  which  they  move  according 
to  that  which  pleases  them.  They  have  always  acted  upon  impulse 
and  have  never  learned  to  suppress  a  desire  for  the  sake  of  the  end 
to  be  attained.  Well  chosen  and  skillfully  directed  games  will  do 
much  towards  developing  the  children's  ideas  so  that  they  will  act 
for  the  good  of  society  rather  than  for  selfish  purposes. 

Games  for  young  children  should  have  few  restrictions  and  should 
aim  to  develop  spontaneity  and  initiative.  However,  the  very  young 
child  will  soon  learn  that  he  must  conform  to  certain  regulations; 
these  regulations  become  more  formal  and  exact  as  the  child  matures 
and  indulges  in  other  games.  He  soon  learns  that  he  cannot  bat  out 
of  his  turn,  that  the  rights  of  other  pupils  must  be  respected,  and 
that  at  times  he  must  even  make  a  sacrifice  hit  in  order  that  another 
may  score.  Ample  opportunity  is  afforded  for  the  pupil  to  distin- 
guish between  winning  by  fair  means  and  foul.  If  a  love  of  fair 
play  is  instilled  into  the  pupil  at  an  early  age  it  will  be  of  inestimable 
value  both  to  the  pupil  himself  and  to  society. 

We  would  suggest  to  teachers  that  games  be  selected  which  have 
strong  play  values,  i.  e.,  the  game  selected  should  contain  the  elements 
of  both  sport  and  interest.  Let  the  teacher  participate  in  all  games. 
Do  not  make  games  too  serious;  get  fun  and  laughter  out  of  them. 
In  teaching  games  much  interest  may  be  added  if  a  full  explanation 
is  given  by  the  teacher  before  the  game  is  begun.  This  may  often 
be  best  done  by  means  of  diagrams  upon  the  blackboard.  Whenever 


25 

the  interest  in  a  game  wanes  the  teacher  should  be  ready  to  suggest 
a  new  one.  Games  furnish  excellent  opportunity  for  teaching  disci- 
pline; let  the  teacher  see  to  it  that  good  discipline  prevails  upon  the 
play  ground.  Teach  pupils  to  play  to  win,  but  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance of  proper  tactics,  and  aim  to  cultivate  a  high  sense  of  honor. 

For  further  study  of  games  it  is  recommended  that  the  teacher 
procure  a  copy  of  "Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and 
Gymnasium,"  by  Jessie  H.  Bancroft.  The  book  is  published  by  the 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Price  $1.50.  It  names  and  de- 
scribes a  large  number  of  games  suitable  for  each  grade  in  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Another  book  of  games  costing  less  is  recommended : 
Johnston's  "What  to  Do  at  Recess" ;  Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York,  price  25 
cents.  The  following  list  of  games  may  prove  helpful  to  teachers. 
First  and  Second  Years. 

Playground.  Indoors. 

Jack  Be  Nimble.  Changing  Seats. 

The  Muffin  Man.  Bean  Bag  and  Basket  Relay. 

Teacher  and  Class.  Kaleidoscope. 

Do  This,  Do  That.  Oats,  Peas,  Beans. 

Third  and  Fourth  Years. 

Playground.  Indoors. 

Bean  Bag  Circle  Toss.  Blackboard  Relay. 

Single  Relay  Race.  Leaf  by  Leaf. 

Prisoner's  Base.  Slap  Jack. 

The  Farmer  is  Coming.  Target  Toss. 

Hill  Dill.  Last  Man. 

Fifth  to  Eighth  Grades  Inclusive. 

Playground.  Indoors. 

Circle  Dodge  Ball.  Blackboard  Relay  Race. 

Wood  Tag.  Nimble  Squirrel. 

Double  Dodge  Ball.  Bend  and  Stretch  Relay. 

Jumping  Rope — III.  Hen  Roost. 

Partner  Tag.  The  Minister's  Cat. 

Old  Woman  From  the  Wood.  Author's  Initials. 

War.  Prince  of  Paris. 

Base  Ball. 

- 

MORALS  AND  MANNERS. 

Character  has  a  physical  basis  and  this  fact  should  be  recognized 
«arly  in  life  by  the  child.     The  teaching  of  morals  and  manners 


26 

should  be  so  directed  that  the  child  may  realize  that  its  physical 
welfare  will  be  benefited,  and  that  it  pays  to  do  right  for  economic 
and  social  reasons.  It  should  be  made  clear  to  children  that  their 
usefulness,  influence,  and  happiness  in  life  will  depend  very  largely 
on  the  character  they  will  build. 

There  are  two  distinct  periods  in  character  building  that  the 
teacher  must  recognize  if  the  most  desirable  results  are  to  be  ob- 
tained. The  period  of  childhood  from  six  to  about  twelve  or  thirteen 
and  the  period  of  youth  from  twelve  or  thirteen  to  about  twenty 
years  or  later  must  be  clearly  distinguished.  In  childhood  the  in- 
stincts are  individualistic.  The  appeal  must  be  made  only  in  so  far 
as  the  child  can  see  a  personal  benefit  to  be  derived.  All  other  teach- 
ing must  be  based  on  recognized  and  accepted  authority.  The  impor- 
tant thing  in  childhood  is  to  have  the  child  act  out  every  moral  idea 
and  precept  that  is  to  be  learned.  A  properly  organized  school  fur- 
nishes very  excellent  situations  for  the  child  to  do  what  is  to  be 
learned.  With  the  child  even  more  than  with  the  youth  the  doing 
is  the  learning. 

As  soon  as  the  child  attains  to  the  age  of  youth  a  very  different 
manner  of  treatment  must  be  accorded  him.  His  social  instincts  now 
make  it  possible  for  him  to  become  morally  whatever  his  environment 
will  produce  in  him.  He  now  has  a  natural  disposition  to  do  and  to 
live  for  other  people.  The  teacher  should  not  only  recognize  this  new 
sense,  but  he  must  also  recognize  that  the  youth  has  a  keen  sense  of 
the  respect,  reverence,  and  confidence  that  he  is  worthy  of.  He 
should  be  treated  now  as  one  whose  opinions  and  behavior  are  of  real 
worth  to  other  people. 

Some  of  the  things  that  the  child  should  learn  are  cleanliness,  neat- 
ness, promptness,  regularity  and  obedience.  It  is  also  well  that  the 
child  should  learn  that  it  should  pay  for  a  benefit  before  it  enjoys  it 
and  that  it  should  take  pain  before  pleasure  when  the  one  follows 
the  other.  Teach  by  incidents,  illustrations,  and  stories  well  told  to 
impress  the  idea  and  to  secure  the  proper  response  in  conduct.  Show 
that  kindness,  honesty  and  truthfulness  have  their  sure  reward.  Teach 
that  industry,  politeness,  and  respect  for  other  people  are  desirable 
virtues  and  that  idleness,  rudeness  and  irreverence  are  vices  to  be 
avoided.  , 

Teach  the  youth  to  see  clearly  the  need  and  value  of  institutions, 
of  government  and  of  society.  Use  biography,  history,  and  literature 
to  show  how  civilization  depends  upon  the  co-operation  of  human 
beings  of  all  classes  and  ranks  of  life.  Give  the  youth  large  oppor- 


27 

tunity  to  act  out  his  moral  ideas  and  place  responsibility  upon  him 
for  which  he  is  to  account  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  Keep  in 
mind  in  dealing  with  both  children  and  youth  that  prevention  and 
not  reformation  is  the  school's  function.  The  time  to  act  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  is  before  the  impulse  and  instinct  have  resulted  in 
undesirable  behavior. 

PLAN  BOOK. 

There  is  no  learning  without  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
Memorizing  is  not  learning.  There  is  no  teaching  without  thinking 
and  reasoning  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Hearing  pupils  recite  the 
lessons  they  have  learned  or  committed  and  drilling  pupils  on  what 
they  have  not  yet  acquired  is  not  teaching. 

There  is  no  teaching  without  thinking  on  the  part  of  both  pupil 
and  teacher.  Thinking,  in  this  connection,  may  be  described  as  mak- 
ing plans  to  meet  felt  needs  and  finding  means  to  secure  the  end 
planned  for.  Thinking  consists  in  planning  worthy  purposes  and 
aims  and  in  finding  the  most  economic  means  to  the  attainment  of 
these  purposes  and  aims.  It  follows  that  successful  learning  and 
teaching  alike  must  be  well  planned. 

Every  teacher  should  have  a  plan  book  of  convenient  size.  A 
blank  book  about  8x10  inches  is  suitable  in  size.  The  teacher  should 
begin  to  collect  material  in  this  book  not  later  than  at  the  county  insti- 
tute in  any  school  year.  During  this  institute  week,  many  sugges- 
tions should  be  developed  into  tentative  school  plans  which  should 
later  mature  into  very  definite  plans  for  teaching.  When  the  school 
opens,  the  book  should  contain  the  large  plans  for  the  entire  year 
and  detailed  plans  for  the  first  week  or  two. 

After  the  school  has  opened  in  the  fall,  the  plan  work  should  be 
done  weekly  and  daily.  At  the  end  of  each  week,  the  plans  for  the 
next  week  should  be  written  in  the  book.  These  plans  should  indicate 
briefly  how  much  will  be  attempted  in  each  subject,  book  subjects 
by  topics  and  outlines,  etc.;  objective  subjects  as  nature  study,  home 
geography,  agriculture,  etc.,  by  very  definite  accounts  of  the  material 
to  be  used  in  each  lesson,  together  with  the  aim  or  purpose  in  pre- 
senting the  material.  In  doing  this  weekly  plan  work,  the  text  book 
material  should  be  carefully  sifted  to  find  what  the  pupil  will  need 
to  learn,  what  difficulties  the  pupil  will  find  in  learning  the  material, 
and  what  may  be  omitted.  This  is  the  time  to  rank  the  material 
according  to  its  educative  value.  As  the  book  grows  from  week  to 


28 

week,  the  teacher  can  look  back  through  it  to  get  the  trend  of  his 
school  and  to  direct  the  school  more  wisely  and  economically. 

There  can  be  no  successful  teaching  without  daily  preparation  and 
planning  of  the  work.  A  teacher  never  becomes  so  thorough  in  any 
subject  that  daily  preparation  is  not  necessary  to  teach  it  success- 
/  fully.  To  provide  for  good  teaching  and  the  growth  of  the  teacher, 
individual  lessons  should  be  planned  as  often  as  time  will  permit.  A 
plan  of  this  kind  consists  in  stating  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  lesson 
or  group  of  closely  related  lessons,  an  analysis  of  the  material  to  be 
studied  in  the  lesson  and  the  chief  teaching  questions  to  be  asked 
the  pupils. 

Suggestive  school  room  material,  such  as  seat  work,  plan  books, 
etc.,  may  be  found  by  writing  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ;  A. 
Flanagan  Company,  Chicago,  111.;  or  Milton  Bradley  Company,  11 
S.  16th  St.,  New  York.  A  chapter  on  lesson  planning  together  with 
a  number  of  lesson  plans  may  be  found  in  Strayer's  "The  Teaching 
Process,"  published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  New  York  City, 
$1.25. 

THE   DAILY  PROGRAM. 

The  arranging  of  a  daily  program  is  always  a  difficult  thing  to  do 
in  a  rural  school  of  eight  grades.  And  yet  the  success  of  the  school 
depends  largely  on  how  well  this  program  of  daily  work  is  arranged. 
The  tendency  among  teachers  is  to  provide  for  too  many  classes. 
Some  teachers  have  been  found  trying  to  do  the  impossible  task  of 
teaching  from  30  to  40  classes  a  day.  There  should  not  be  more 
than  20  to  25. 

How  to  avoid  having  too  many  classes  is  a  problem  that  confronts 
every  rural  teacher  of  a  one-room  school  of  seven  or  eight  grades. 
The  problem  can  be  solved  only  by  alternation  and  correlation  of 
studies. 

Alternation  is  the  systematic  and  regular  union  of  two  grades  of 
pupils,  both  grades  doing  the  work  of  one  year  in  one  class,  while  the 
other  year's  work  is  omitted.  The  next  year  the  work  omitted  is 
taken  up  and  the  first  year's  work  dropped.  In  this  way  each  pupil 
does  all  the  work  of  the  course,  but  not  all  in  the  same  order,  and 
the  number  of  classes  is  greatly  diminished,  the  recitation  periods 
lengthened  and  more  efficient  work  done. 

The  best  rural  school  work  can  not  be  done  without  alternation. 
Alternation  is  used  in  many  high  schools  and  also  in  colleges  and 


29 

post-graduate  courses  of  our  great  universities.  The  rural  teacher 
must  avail  himself  of  this  valuable  plan  of  organization. 

Alternation  of  classes  may  begin  in  the  3rd  and  4th  grades,  but  for 
most  schools  it  is  adequate  to  begin  with  the  5th  and  6th  grades.  It 
is  a  very  simple  matter  to  teach  the  5th  grade  work  in  geography  to 
the  5th  and  6th  grade  pupils  in  3914-15  and  in  1915-16  to  teach  the 
6th  grade  geography  to  5th  and  6th  grade  pupils,  and  so  on,  alternat- 
ing each  succeeding  year. 

In  a  similar  manner  5th  grade  reading  and  6th  grade  history,  5th 
and  6th  grade  arithmetic  and  5th  and  6th  grade  language  work  may 
be  alternated.  In  the  7th  and  8th  grades  all  the  work  may  be  alter- 
nated where  it  is  not  more  economical  to  correlate  with  other  sub- 
jects. 

Correlation  is  here  used  to  mean  the  teaching  of  one  subject,  as 
bookkeeping,  while  teaching  the  8th  grade  arithmetic  work.  Above 
the  oth  grade  there  should  be  no  class  in  writing  except  in  indi- 
vidual cases.  These  individual  cases  should  take  daily  practice  along 
with  the  lower  grades. 

Type  Daily  Program  of  Recitation  and  Study. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Note  that  this  program  is  but  a  type  program.     It  is  meant 
merely  to  be  suggestive.     The  number  of  pupils  and  the  number  of 
grades  will  determine  the  daily  program  of  your  school. 

2.  Study  this  type  daily  program  diligently  until  you  have  mas- 
tered the  general  plan  of  recitation  and  study  periods.    To  do  so  will 
enable  you  to  work  out  a  daily  program  for  your  school. 

3.  Note  that  it  is  important  for  children  to  have  regular  times- 
for  studying  the  different  subjects  as  well  as  for  reciting.     To  do  so- 
will  result  in  good  habits  of  work  and  better  discipline  in  the  school. 

4.  This  type  program  has  26    recitation  periods.    You  will  doubt- 
less be  able  to  reduce  this  number  somewhat.     For  example,  three 
periods,  25  minutes,  are  allotted  to  spelling.     If  your  pupils  are  al- 
ready reasonably  good  spellers,  or  if  you  think  you  can  teach  spelling 
in  connection  with  other  subjects,  these  periods  may  be  eliminated, 
thus  reducing  the  number  of  class  exercises  to  23  and  allowing  25 
minutes  to  be  applied  to  other  subjects. 

5.  Note  what  classes  are  alternated  and  correlated  in  this  type 
program.     It  may  be  that  you  can  extend  these  methods  of  saving 
time.     The  teacher  must  be  the  judge  as  to  whether  two  grades  can 
work  together  on  one  year's  work  without  having  done  the  work  of 


30 

the  preceding  year.  In  classes  so  indicated  it  is  possible,  provided 
the  pupils  have  been  well  taught  up  to  this  time.  Once  a  school  has 
been  organized  in  this  way  it  is  then  comparatively  easy  to  do. 

6.  Note  that  but  one  period  has  been  assigned  to  United  States 
and  state  history.     It  may  be  that  the  teacher  will  have  to  teach 
seventh  grade  history  as  a  separate  class.    In  the  grades  below  the  7th 
geography  and  nature  study  use  the  same  period,  on  different  days. 
Hygiene  and  sanitation  should  be  taught  at  this  same  period  once  a 
week.     A  good  allotment  would  be:     Nature  study,  2  days;  geogra- 
phy, 2  days;  hygiene  and  sanitation,  1  day.     In  the  7th  and  8th 
grades  agriculture  and  physiology  should  use  the  same  period,  recit- 
ing on  different  days,  2  periods  for  the  one  and  3  periods  for  the  other 
•each  week. 

7.  Note  that  reading  includes  literature  and  language  includes 
composition.     See  Section  III  for  definite  instructions  for  teaching 
these  subjects. 

8.  General  history  has  not  been  given  a  place  on  this  program. 
It  should  not  be  taught  unless  absolutely  necessary.     Bookkeeping 
should  be  taught  only  in  connection  with  7th  and  8th  grade  arith- 
metic. 


31 


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SECTION  II 


Outline  of  Studies  by  Grades. 


OUTLINE   OF   STUDIES   BY  GRADES. 


First  Grade. 

READING — Texts : 

White's  Story  Reader  (Primer). 

Jones'  Reader — Book  One. 
Supplementary  Readers: 

Art  Literature  Readers. 

(Primer  and  First  Reader.) 

Free  and  Tread  well's  Literature. 
(Primer  and  First  Reader.) 

See  Reading  and  Literature,  and  Language  and  Composi- 
tion, Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  First  Grade. 

WRITING — Text.  Berry's  Writing  Books.  Book  No.  1.  See  Writing, 
Section  III,  General  Discussion  and  First  Grade.  Write  B. 
D.  Berry  &  Company,  620  So.  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago  111., 
for  "Suggestions  for  Teaching  Writing." 

SPELLING — See  Spelling,  Section  III  for  General  Discussion  and 
First  Grade. 

ARITHMETIC — See  Arithmetic,  Section  III,  for  General  Discussion 
and  First  Grade. 

NATURE  STUDY — See  Nature  Study,  Section  III,  for  General  Dis- 
cussion and  First  Grade. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — See  Physiology,  Section  III,  for  outline 
of  work  in  First,  Second  and  Third  Grades. 

DRAWING — See  Drawing,  Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and 
First  Grade.  Use  Prang's  Progressive  Drawing  Books — 
Book  One. 

Music — See  Music,  Section  III,  for  General  Discussion. 

Second  Grade. 

READING — (See  directions  for  First  Grade  work.) 
Text:    Jones'  Reader,  Book  Two. 
Supplementary  Readers: 

Art  Literature  Readers  (Second  Reader). 

Free  and  Treadwell's  Second  Reader. 


36 

WHITING — Same  as  First  Grade. 

Text:  Berry's  Writing  Book  No.  2.  See  Berry's  "Sugges- 
tions for  Teaching  Writing."  See  Writing,  Section  III,  for 
General  Discussion,  and  Second  Grade. 

SPELLING — Same  as  First  Grade.  See  Spelling,  Section  III,  for  Gen- 
eral Discussion  and  Second  Grade. 

AJUTHMETIC — See  Arithmetic,  Section  III,  for  General  Discussion 
and  Second  Grade. 

NATUBE  STUDY — Same  as  First  Grade. 

HISTOKY — (Story  and  Biography).  See  United  States  History,  Sec- 
tion III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Second  Grade. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — See  Physiology,  Section  III,  for  Gen- 
eral Discussion  and  Outline  of  Work  for  First,  Second  and 
Third  Grades. 

DEAWING — See  Drawing,  Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and 
Second  Grade.  Use  Prang's  Book  Two. 

Music — Same  as  First  Grade.     Congdon's  Music  Primer,  Book  I. 

Third  Grade. 

BEADING — Text:     Jones'  Reader — Book  Three. 
Supplementary  Readers: 

Art  Literature  Readers   (Third  Reader). 
Winslow's  "The  Earth  and  Its  People,"  of  the  Geographic- 
Readers,  or  some  other  book  of  similar  grade. 
See  Reading  and  Literature,  and  Language  and  Compo- 
sition, Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Third 
Grade. 

WEITING — Text:     Berry's  Writing  Book  No.  3.     See  Writing,  Sec- 
tion III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Third  Grade. 
SPELLING — Text:     Champion  Spelling  Book,  Section  I.     See  Spell- 
ing,   Section    III,    for    General    Discussion    and    Third 
Grade. 

AEITHMETIC — Texts:    Appleton's  Primary  Book,  Chapters  I,  II  and 
III,  and  Lippincott's  Mental  Arithmetic.   See  Arithmetic, 
Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Third  Grade. 
NATUEE  STUDY — See  Nature  Study,  Section  III,  for  General  Discus- 
sion and  Third  Grade. 

HISTOEY — (Story  and  Biography).     See  United  States  History,  Sec* 
tion  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Third  Grade. 


37 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — See  Physiology,  Section  III,  for  General 
Discussion  and  Outline  of  Work  for  First,  Second  and  Third 
Grades. 

DRAWING — Prang's  Book  Three.  See  Drawing,  Section  III,  for  Gen- 
eral Discussion  and  Third  Grade. 

Music — Congdon's  Book  II,  or  First,  Second  and  Third  Grades  may 
together  use  Congdon's  Book  I. 

Fourth  Grade. 

READING — Text:    Jones  Eeaders — Book  Four. 
Supplementary  Readers: 
Art  Literature  Readers  (Fourth  Reader). 
Winslow's  "The  United  States"  of  the  Geographic  Read- 
ers.    See  Reading  and  Literature,   Section  III,  for  Gen- 
eral Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

LANGUAGE — Text:  Modern  English,  Book  One,  Part  I  to  Lesson 
62 ;  Part  II  to  Lesson  124.  See  Language  and  Composition, 
Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

WRITING — Text:  Berry's  Book  Four.  See  Writing,  Section  III,  for 
General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

SPELLING — Text:  Champion  Spelling  Book,  Section  11.  See  Spell- 
ing, Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

ARITHMETIC — Texts:  Appleton's  Primary  Book  Completed.  Lip- 
pincott's  Mental  Arithmetic.  See  Arithmetic,  Section  III, 
for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

NATURE  STUDY — See  Nature  Study,  Section  III,  for  General  Discus- 
sion and  Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades. 

GEOGRAPHY — First  Half  Year.  No  text  is  to  used  this  half  of 
the  year.  See  Geography,  Section  III,  for  General  Discus- 
sion and  Fourth  Grade.  Note  that  for  the  second  half  year 
Frye's  First  Course  is  to  be  completed  to  page  98. 

HISTORY — (Story  and  Biography).  See  U.  S.  History,  Section  III, 
for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — Text:  Ritchie-Caldwell's  Primer  of 
Hygiene,  Chapters  I  to  XXI  inclusive.  See  Physiology, 
Section  III,  for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 

DRAWING — Text:  Prang's  Book  Four.  See  Drawing, '  Section  III, 
for  General  Discussion  and  Fourth  Grade. 


Music— Text:     Congdon's  Book  Three,  or  Fourth,  Fifth  and    Sixth 
Grades  may  together  use  Book  Two.   See  Music,  Section  III. 

Fifth  Grade. 

READING — Text:    Jones'  Eeaders,  Book  Five. 

Supplementary  Readers: 

Art  Literature  Readers,  Book  Five. 

"Our  American  Neighbors." 

Bison's  Grammar  School  Literature,  Book  One. 

See  Reading  and  Literature,  Section  III. 
LANGUAGE — Text:     Modern    English,  Book   One,  completed.      See 

Language  and  Composition,  Section  III. 
WRITING— Text:    Berry's  Book  Five  or  Book  Six.     Fifth  and  Sixth 

Grades  should  be  combined  into  one  class.     See  Writing, 

Section  III. 
SPELLING — Text:     Champion  Speller,  Section  III  or  IV.    Fifth  and 

Sixth  Grades  should  be    combined    into    one    class.      See 

Spelling,  Section  III. 
ARTHMETIC — Texts:    Appleton's      Grammar      School     Arithmetic, 

pages,  1-120;  Lippincott's  Mental  Arithmetic.     See  Arith- 
metic, Section  III. 
NATURE  STUDY — See  Fourth  Grade. 
GEOGRAPHY — Text:     Frye's  First  Course,  completed  from  page  98, 

in  first  half  year;  Frye's  Higher  Geography,  second  half 

year,  pages  1-60,  and  West  Virginia  Geography.     See  Geog- 
raphy, Section  III. 
PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE:     Text:    Ritchie-Caldwell's   Primer  of 

Hygiene  completed  from  page  103.    See  Physiology,  Section, 

III. 

DRAWING — Text:    Prang's  Book  Five.     See  Drawing,  Section  III. 
Music — Text:    See  Fourth  Grade  and  Music,  Section  III. 

Sixth  Grade. 

READING— Text:     Elson's  Grammar  School  Literature.     Book  One. 
Supplementary  Readers : 
"Europe"  of  the  Geographic  Readers. 

Teachers  are  urged  to  write  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  Chicago, 
111.,  for  manuals  on  teaching  the  Elson  Readers.     They  are 
free. 
See  Reading  and  Literature,  Section  III. 


39 

LANGUAGE — Text:  Modern  English,  Book  One,  Part  III  completed. 
See  Language  and  Composition,  Section  III. 

WRITING — Berry's  Book  Five  or  Book  Six.  See  Fifth  Grade.  Fifth 
and  Sixth  Grades  should  be  combined  into  one  class.  See 
Writing,  Section  III. 

SPELLING — Text:  Champion  Speller,  Section  III  or  IV.  See  Fifth 
Grade.  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grades  should  be  combined  into 
one  class.  See  Spelling,  Section  III. 

ARITHMETIC — Texts:  Appleton's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic, 
Chapter  IV;  Lippincott's  Mental  Arithmetic.  See  Arith- 
metic, Section  III. 

NATURE  STUDY — See  Nature  Study,  Sixth  Grade,  Section  III. 
GEOGRAPHY — Text:     Frye's  Higher  Geography,  completed  from  page 
60.     See  Geography,  Section  III. 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY — Text:  Montgomery's  Beginner's  Ameri- 
can History.  Completed  in  first  half  year.  No  history  in 
second  half  year.  See  United  States  History,  Section  III. 

PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — Text:  Ritchie-Caldwell's  Primer  of 
Sanitation;  first  half  year  pages  1-100;  second  half  year 
pages  100-194.  See  Physiology,  Section  III. 

DRAWING — Prang's  Book  Six.     See  Drawing,  Section  III. 
Music — See  Fourth  Grade  and  Music,  Section  III. 

Seventh  Grade. 

READING — Text:    Elson's  Grammar  School  Literature,  Book  Two. 

Supplementary  Readers: 

"Distant  Lands"  of  the  Geographic  Readers. 

See  Reading  and  Literature,  Section  III. 
LANGUAGE — Text:     Modern  English,  Book  Two,  Part  I  and  Part 

III  to  Lesson  16.     See  Language  and  Composition,  Sec- 
tion III. 
WRITING — Berry's  Book  Seven,  or  Book  Eight.     Seventh  and  Eighth 

Grades  should  be  combined  into  one  class.     See  Writing, 

Section  III. 

SPELLING — Text:  Champion  Speller,  Section  V  or  VI.  Seventh 
and  Eighth  Grades  should  be  combined  into  one  class.  See 
Spelling,  Section  III. 


40 

ARITHMETIC — Texts:  Appleton's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic, 
Pages  231-353 ;  Lippincott's  Mental  Arithmetic.  See  Arith- 
metic, Section  III. 

AGEICULTORE— Text:  Soule  and  Tur  pin's  Fundamental  Principles 
of  Agriculture.  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  should  be  com- 
bined into  one  class,  using  different  materials  each  year.  See 
Agriculture,  Section  III. 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY — Text:  Montgomery's  Leading  Facts  of 
American  History;  first  half  year,  Chapters  I-III;  second 
half  year,  Chapters  IV- VII.  See  United  States  History, 
Section  III. 

DRAWING— Text:    Prang's  Book  Seven.     See  Drawing,  Section  III. 

Music — See  Music,  Section  III. 

Eighth  Grade. 

BEADING — Text:  Elson's  Grammar  School  Literature,  Books  Three 
and  Four.  See  Reading  and  Literature,  Section  III. 

LANGUAGE — Text:    Modern  English,  Book  Two. 

See  Language  and  Composition,  Section  III. 

WRITING — Text:  Berry's  Book  Seven  or  Book  Eight.  See  Seventh 
Grade.  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  should  be  combined 
into  one  class.  See  Writing,  Section  III. 

SPELLING — Text:  Champion  Speller,  Section  V  or  VI.  See  Sev- 
enth Grade.  Seventh  and  Eighth  Grades  should  be  com- 
bined into  one  class.  See  Spelling,  Section  III. 

ARITHMETIC — Text:  Appleton's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic.  Com- 
pleted in  first  half  year.  Lippincotf  s  Mental  Arithmetic. 
Bookkeeping  takes  the  place  of  Arithmetic  in  second  half 
year.  See  Arithmetic,  Section  III. 

AGRICULTURE— See  Seventh  Grade  and  Agriculture,  Section  III.  Sev- 
enth and  Eighth  Grades  should  be  combined  into  one  class, 
using  different  materials  each  year. 

UNITED  STATES  HISTORY — Text:  Montgomery's  Leading  Facts  of 
American  History,  Chapters  VIII  and  IX,  completed  in 
first  half  year.  State  History  should  be  studied  last  half 
year.  See  United  States  History,  Section  III. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT— Text:  Peterman's  Elements  of  Civil  Govern- 
ment. See  Civil  Government,  Section  III. 


41 

STATE  HISTORY — Text:     Lewis'  History  and   Government  of  West 
Virginia.    Last  half  year  only.   Bead  carefully  instructions, 
State  History,  Section  III. 
PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE — Text:     Caldwell's  Human  Physiology. 

See  Physiology,  Section  III. 

DRAWING — Text:    Prang's  Book  Eight.    See  Drawing,  Section  III. 
Music — See  Music,  Section  III. 
OENERAL  HISTORY  AND  BOOKKEEPING. 

Note:  Unless  there  is  a  strong  demand  for  these  subjects 
they  shoujd  not  be  taught  as  separate  subjects.  General 
history  is  believed  to  be  too  difficult  for  elementary 
pupils.  Bookkeeping  can  be  taught  in  connection  with 
arithmetic.  If  taught  at  all,  bookkeeping  should  be 
offered  only  in  the  second  half  year  after  arithmetic  has 
been  completed. 


SECTION  III 


Outline  of  Studies  by  Subjects. 


READING  AND  LITERATURE 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 
General  Statement. 

Reading  is  the  most  important  study  in  the  curriculum.  It  is  the 
most  important  study  because  nearly  all  the  other  subjects  depend 
upon  it.  Arithmetic,  geography,  history  and  other  branches  are- 
studied  in  large  part  through  books  which  the  pupil  must  read.  It 
is  important,  moreover,  because  reading  is  the  most  convenient  meana 
that  the  children  have,  after  they  leave  school,  of  informing  them- 
selves and  of  amusing  themselves.  Reading,  then,  is  the  key  that 
unlocks  the  great  store  house  of  knowledge  and  wisdom,  art  and  cul- 
ture. 

One  of  the  fundamental  aims  of  the  school,  therefore,  is  to  teach 
children  to  read  well,  which  is  to  read  with  ease,  pleasure,  rapidity, 
and  intelligence.  In  fact,  aside  from  nature  study,  agriculture,  hy- 
giene, and  handicraft  work,  the  curriculum  may  be  said  to  exist,  in 
part,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  child  to  read  and  write  well  in 
different  subjects;  and  even  the  branches  mentioned  above  are  sup- 
plemented largely  by  reading.  The  teacher  who  can  teach  reading 
in  the  broad  sense  in  which  it  is  here  used,  is  a  good  teacher. 

Method  of  Teaching!  Primary  Reading. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  method  of  teaching  beginners  to  read  is- 
very  important.  Reading  is  the  art  of  getting  the  meaning  from 
print  and  writing.  Any  series  of  exercises  that  enables  the  child  to 
learn  this  art  is  a  method  of  teaching  reading.  But  some  series  of 
exercises  are  better  than  others,  easier,  more  economical  of  time  and 
energy,  and  lead  more  directly  into  the  art  of  getting  ideas  from 
print  and  script.  What  is  the  best  method? 

If  we  examine  the  way  in  which  the  child  learns  to  get  the  mean- 
ing from  what  he  hears,  perhaps  we  shall  see  how  we  should  set  about 
training  him  to  get  the  meaning  from  what  he  sees  on  the  printed 
page.  The  infant  sees  a  certain  animal  with  four  legs,  a  body  of  a 
certain  shape,  ears  and  eyes  and  tail.  He  can  recognize  the  animal 
when  he  sees  it;  but  as  yet,  he  does  not  know  any  name  to  apply  to- 
rt. But  he  wants  to  know.  His  mother  tells  him  it  is  a  pig,  and  she* 


46 

has  him  say  the  word  until  he  can  pronounce  it.  After  some  days 
of  forgetting  and  being  told,  he  succeeds  in  remembering  that  the 
sound  pig  is  the  sign  of  that  animal.  Now  the  name  given  to  that 
animal  might  have  been  gip  and  the  child  would  have  been  just  as 
well  satisfied.  That  is,  the  name  is  an  artificial  sign  of  the  idea. 
No  amount  of  observing  the  animal  would  have  told  him  what  its 
name  is.  That  is  something  he  has  to  learn  as  a  separate  bit  of 
knowledge.  Likewise  he  learns  that  I  is  a  sound  used  by  a  person 
to  represent  himself  when  he  is  speaking  and  writing;  that  see  is  a 
sound  used  to  stand  for  the  act  of  looking,  of  using  the  eyes  to  ob- 
serve. Finally  if  the  sentence  I  see  a  pig  is  read,  the  child  recognizes 
the  sounds  as  representing  ideas,  and  he  learns  how  to  express  his 
own  ideas  by  using  these  artificial  sounds.  In  other  words,  he  had 
learned  that  certain  sounds  stand  for  certain  ideas,  and  he  can  articu- 
late these  sounds  with  the  understanding  that  he  is  expressing  ideas. 

Observe  five  facts  in  this  process:  (1)  The  child  has  but  learned 
the  sound-signs  of  ideas  that  are  already  familiar  to  him.  He  has 
learned  only  how  to  call  the  things  that  he  knew.  He  has  mastered 
the  artificial  symbols  of  previously  learned  ideas ;  he  has  not  acquired 
new  ideas.  (2)  He  has  learned  these  names  as  whole,  not  as  parts; 
that  is,  he  has  not  learned  the  sound  pig  by  learning  separately  the 
three  sounds  in  the  word,  or  by  learning  the  three  letters  p-i-g',  he 
has  learned  the  group  of  sounds  as  a  unit.  (3)  He  has  learned  that 
each  object  and  idea  has  its  sound-sign,  and  by  practice  has  developed 
some  power  of  learning  new  sound-signs.  (4)  He  has  learned  to 
understand  sounds  by  hearing  them  often,  and  has  learned  to  utter 
the  sounds  by  imitation  and  practice.  (5)  He  takes  pleasure  in  the 
process,  because  he  feels  the  desirability  of  knowing  the  names  for 
the  different  objects  and  ideas. 

Learning  to  read  is  a  similar  process.  Instead  of  learning  sound- 
signs,  the  child  is  now  to  learn  print-signs.  The  idea  is  now  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  printed  or  written  letters  combined  in  words  and 
sentences,  instead  of  by  means  of  spoken  sounds,  combined  in  words 
and  sentences.  The  child  has  now  a  double  task.  He  must  not  only 
learn  the  print-signs  of  ideas;  he  must  identify  the  print-signs  with 
the  sound-signs.  The  spoken  word  pig  is  a  sign  of  the  animal; 
the  printed  word  pig  is  another  sign  of  the  animal;  while 
the  written  word  pig  is  a  variety  of  the  printed  sign.  However,  this 
double  task  is  not  very  difficult,  since  the  child  has  already  learned 
the  sound-name;  and  as  soon  as  he  learns  the  print-name  for  the 
same  idea,  he  associates  the  two  names. 


47 

Just  here  one  of  the  fundamental  mistakes  of  teaching  reading  is 
often  made:  the  teacher  thinks  the  child's  sole  task  is  to  directly 
associate  the  two  names.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  child's  first  task 
is  to  associate  the  print-sign  with  the  idea ;  after  he  has  done  that,  the 
readily  associates  the  two  names.  That  is,  the  child  should  be  taught 
to  get  ideas  from  the  printed  symbols,  not  merely  to  pronounce  the 
corresponding  spoken  symbols.  There  is  danger  that  the  child  in 
reading  his  lesson  may  only  associate  the  print-sign  with  the  sound- 
sign;  may  only  pronounce  words,  instead  of  getting  ideas. 

Naturally,  then,  the  teacher  must  make  sure  that  the  child  see  and 
express  the  meaning;  and  in  order  to  make  sure,  the  teacher  will 
have  to  perform  a  process  similar  to  that  of  the  mother  when  she 
taught  the  child  the  sound-names  of  ideas. 

I.  The  teacher  must  teach  the  print-signs  of  these  ideas  that  are 
already  familiar  to  the  child.  To  do  this,  she  must  call  up  the  idea 
into  the  child's  mind.  She  can  do  this  in  four  ways. 

First,  she  may  have  the  objects  themselves  brought  into  the  school 
room,  or  may  take  the  child  out  to  the  objects,  then  have  the  child 
get  reacquainted  with  them.  If  she  wishes  to*  teach  the  word  ball, 
she  can  have  the  child  handle  the  ball.  When  she  is  sure  the  child 
has  the  idea  of  ball  in  his  mind,  she  shows  him  that  the  idea  is  repre- 
sented by  a  certain  sign,  then  she  writes  the  word  on  the  board  and 
points  it  out  in  the  primer.  She  repeats  the  word  and  the  child 
repeats  it  after  her.  Other  words  she  teaches  in  the  same  way,  re- 
viewing and  repeating  from  time  to  time,  just  as  the  mother  has 
done. 

Second,  if  the  idea  is  an  action-idea,  the  teacher  has  the  child  per- 
form the  action,  then  teaches  him  the  written  and  printed  word  that 
names  the  action.  Thus  she  teaches  toss,  catch,  drop,  etc.,  by  having 
the  child  perform  the  actions;  then  associates  the  action  with  the 
word  written  on  the  Hoard,  and  pointed  out  in  the  chart  or  primer. 

Third,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  have  the  object  before  the  child, 
a  picture  is  often  used.  This  is  one  reason  so  many  pictures  are 
found  in  primers  and  first  readers. 

Fourth,  often  the  teacher  can  bring  the  idea  back  into  the  child's 
mind  by  asking  questions  and  starting  conversations  about  the  idea. 
This  is  not  so  good  a  way  as  the  others,  but  it  will  serve. 

The  teacher  may  use  any  or  all  of  these  devices,  but  she  must  make 
sure  that  the  children  have  the  idea  clearly  in  mind  before  the  print- 
sign  of  the  idea  is  presented;  otherwise  the  child  is  likely  to  merely 
pronounce  the  word  without  associating  it  with  the  idea.  The  new 


48 

words  must  always  be  taught  in  this  way  until  the  child  has  gained 
the  power  of  learning  new  words  for  himself.  And,  whenever  the 
reading  lesson  contains  an  unfamiliar  idea,  the  teacher  must  first 
make  the  idea  clear  before  she  tries  to  teach  the  word. 

II.  The  words  should  be  taught  as  wholes,  not  as  parts.     The 
mother  taught  the  sound-sign  of  pig  by  enunciating  the  entire  com- 
bination of  sounds,  not  by  uttering  the  three  sounds  one  by  one.   The 
teacher  should  teach  the  print-sign  of  ideas  by  presenting  the  entire 
combination  of  letters  and  sounds.     In  other  words,    neither    the 
a-b-c's  nor  the  phonics  should  be  taught  first.    The  whole  word  repre- 
sents an  idea,  but  no  part  of  it  represents  an  idea;  therefore,  it  should 
not  be  taught  by  parts. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  child  should  be  taught  to  read  whole  sen- 
tences. As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  word  rarely  expresses  a  complete  idea, 
while  a  sentence  does.  And,  as  reading  consists  in  getting  ideas  from 
print  or  writing,  the  child  should  be  taught  to  read  whole  sentences 
as  units  of  ideas.  This  he  can  do  almost  from  the  beginning.  As 
new  words  are  taught,  they  are  combined  with  old  words  in  sentences. 
For  example :  When  the  child  has  read  the  sentence,  "I  see  a  pig," 
he  can  read  sentences  like  "I  see  a  dog,"  "I  see  a  cat/'  etc.,  as  rapidly 
as  he  learns  the  new  words.  If  the  child  acquires  the  habit  of  read- 
ing sentences  as  wholes,  and  is  taught  to  study  a  sentence  through 
before  he  begins  to  read  aloud,  he  will  not  form  the  habit,  so  fatal 
to  good  reading,  of  reading  in  the  following  fashion:  "I"  (pause) 
"see"  (pause)  "a"  (pause)  "pig,"  laboriously  putting  word  to  word 
and  failing  to  perceive  and  express  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

III.  The  pupil  has  learned  that  each  idea  has  its  print-sign,  just 
as  previously  he  has  learned  from  his  mother  that  each  idea  has  its 
sound-sign ;  and  he  has  developed  some  power  of  learning  new  print- 
signs.    Now  it  is  evident  that  this  power  must  be  increased,  so  that 
he  may  learn  for  himself  print-signs  of  familiar"  ideas.     How  is  he 
to  increase  this  power  ? 

First,  by  being  shown,  that  many  words  are  alike  in  appearance 
and  sound,  and  that  he  can  learn  a  new  word  by  its  resemblance  to 
a  word  he  knows.  Here  comes  in  the  teaching  of  phonics.  The  pupil 
knows  the  appearance  and  sound  of  certain  words — the  word  pig  for 
example.  Other  words  resemble  this:  big,  dig,  fig,  jig,  wig,  etc. 
With  a  little  instruction,  the  child  learns  that  ig  has  a  certain  sound. 
In  the  same  way  he  learns  that  other  letters  and  combinations  of  let- 
ters have  certain  sounds,  until  finally  he  can  discover  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  new  words  by  their  resemblance  to  ones  already  learned.  This 


49 

process  of  comparing  a  new  word  with  old  ones  will  come  quite  natur- 
ally and  sometimes  unconsciously;  but  the  teacher  must  give  a  good 
deal  of  assistance.  Very  often  a  word  is  not  phonetic;  (that  is,  is 
not  pronounced  as  it  is  spelled)  but  in  most  cases  it  has  enough 
resemblance  to  a  word  already  taught  to  help  the  child,  with  a  little 
prompting,  discover  the  pronunciation.  Then,  if  the  child  has  already 
formed  the  habit  of  associating  the  sight  and  sound  of  a  word  with 
the  idea,  he  learns  to  discover  the  idea  represented  by  this  new  word. 
In  general,  the  exercises  in  phonics  need  not  be  complex,  and  they 
should  arise  out  of  the  reading  lessons. 

Second,  by  inferring  the  meaning  of  a  new  word.  For  instance, 
suppose  the  child  sees  this  sentence :  "The  sun  rises  in  the  east  and 
sets  in  the  west/7  If  he  knows  the  meaning  of  all  the  words  except 
"west,"  he  may  be  able  to  infer  the  meaning  of  that  word.  Pictures 
assist  materially  in  this  process  of  inference.  This  inference — 
guessing,  as  we  call  it — goes  on  constantly  and  is  one  of  the  uncon- 
scious ways  in  which  the  child  learns  new  print-signs. 

IV.  The  teacher  must  read  for  the  pupils,  so  that  they  may  learn 
through  imitation ;  and  must  drill  them  until  they  recognize  the  word 
readily  wherever  they  see  it.    As  to  the  drill,  the  best  possible  way 
is  to  supply  plenty  of  supplementary  reading  material,  in  order  that 
the  child  may  learn  the  new  words  in  fresh  combinations,  and  that 
his  interest  may  be  kept  intense.     Many  teachers  err  in  assuming 
that  a  child  will  master  a  word  by  learning  it  once;  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  dozens  of  repetitions  are  necessary  to  fix  some  words  in  his 
mind.     Drill  is  an  absolute  essential  in  teaching  primary  reading, 
but  it  is  best  to  make  this  drill  as  interesting  as  possible  by  varying 
the  material  used. 

V.  The  teacher  must  do  her  best  to  make  the  pupil   feel  the 
desirability  of  learning  to  read.     The  child  learns  to  recognize  the 
words  he  hears  and  to  speak  these  words  because  he  feels  that  it  is 
desirable.     Usually  the  child  feels  a  desire  to  learn  to  read  also,  but 
often  his  desire  becomes  weak  and  must  be  strengthened.    There  are 
several  ways  of  doing  this. 

First,  the  teacher  may  read  poems  and  read  or  tell  interesting 
stories  to  the  children,  and  emphasize  the  fact  that  if  they  learn  to 
read  they  may  find  and  enjoy  such  stories  for  themselves.  The  teacher 
must  be  such  a  good  oral  reader  that  she  will  at  once  set  a  good 
model  for  imitation  and  start  a  longing  in  the  pupils  to  read  as  well 
as  she  does.  In  the  country  school  the  child's  desire  to  learn  to  read 
is  often  strengthened  by  hearing  the  older  pupils  read ;  and  of  course 


50 

the  fact  that  the  child's  parents  and  older  brothers  and  sisters  can 
read  is  another  stimulus. 

Second,  the  children  should  have  supplementary  readers,  so  that 
they  may  continually  be  getting  acquainted  with  fresh,  interesting 
material.  A  child  soon  loses  interest  if  he  is  forced  to  read  the  same 
book  over  and  over.  A  number  of  suitable  books  should  be  at  the 
child's  disposal  in  the  school  library. 

Third,  the  teacher  should  introduce  the  lesson  in  such  a  way  as 
to  create  in  the  children  a  desire  to  learn  to  read  it.  A  few  pointed, 
suggestive  questions  and  remarks  bearing  on  the  coming  lesson  and 
hinting  at  what  is  to  be  found,  will  often  stimulate  a  desire  to  become 
acquainted  with  it. 

Fourth,  the  teacher  should  clear  away  the  difficulties  that  are  too 
great  for  the  children  to  conquer.  When  the  lesson  is  being  assigned, 
she  should  lead  the  children  to  understand  the  unfamiliar  ideas  and 
the  difficult  words,  and  should  plant  within  their  minds  the  sugges- 
tions that  will  enable  them  to  read  with  ease  and  pleasure. 

Fifth,  the  teacher  should  be  patient  with  the  children,  remember- 
ing that  learning  to  read  is  a  complex  and  difficult  mental  act;  and 
that  harshness,  or  even  impatience,  often  crushes  the  desire  to  learn. 

Summary  of  Method. 

Let  us  summarize  the  method  of  teaching  primary  reading.  (1) 
The  pupils  should  be  taught  sentences  and  words  as  wholes.  (2)  The 
words  taught  should  represent  familiar  ideas,  and  the  ideas  should 
be  brought  lip  into  the  child's  mind  before  the  print-signs  are  pre- 
sented. (3)  The  new  words  should  be  taught  in  groups,  so  that  the 
child  will  learn  the  separate  sounds  as  soon  as  possible;  and  the 
teacher  must  help  him  form  the  habit  of  discovering  new  words 
through  their  resemblance  to  the  old.  (4)  Constant  imitation  and 
repetition  are  necessary  to  fix  the  words  in  the  child's  mind.  (5)  The 
teacher  should  strengthen  the  child's  desire  to  learn  to  read  and  should 
make  the  process  as  pleasant  and  interesting  as  possible.  (These 
are  the  essentials  of  the  method.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  many 
variations  of  the  method  must  be  employed  to  fit  different  children.) 

The  Alphabet. 

Incidentally  the  alphabet  is  easily  learned.  The  teacher  must  re- 
member that  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  decidedly 
different  from  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  and  they  have, to  be  taught 
as  separate  bits  of  information.  Moreover,  they  have  little  or  no 


51 

connection  with  learning  to  read.  Suppose  the  child  learns  the  let- 
ters in  the  word  dog.  If  he  spells  them  out,  he  pronounces  deeogee, 
which  is  certainly  not  the  way  to  pronounce  the  word  and  gives  little 
clue  to  the  pronunciation.  But  after  the  child  learns  to  read,  he 
feels  some  curiosity  about  these  different  characters  and  willingly 
learns  their  names.  Of  course,  he  must  know  the  alphabet  names 
before  he  can  spell  orally;  but  this  need  not  come  before  the  end  of 
the  first  year.  He  need  not  know  the  letters  in  their  order  (a,  b,  c, 
d,  etc.)  until  it  is  time  for  him  to  consult  a  dictionary;  though,  of 
course,  he  will  usually  learn  them  much  sooner.  The  names  and 
order  of  the  letters  are  often  taught  by  means  of  an  alphabet  song. 

Reading  Versus  Literature. 

The  child  should  have  a  basal  primer,  a  reader  and  at  least  two 
or  three  supplementary  readers  in  the  first  grade ;  and  in  each  of  the 
grades  above  the  first,  he  should  have  at  least  one  supplementary 
reader.  These  readers  will  consist  of  two  kinds  of  material:  infor- 
mational reading  matter  and  literature.  The  difference  is  implied  in 
the  names.  The  informational  reading  matter  consists  of  lessons 
designed  to  give  the  child  knowledge  of  various  kinds.  The  literature 
consists  of  poems,  stories,  etc.,  designed  to  arouse  his  emotions,  and 
increase  his  enjoyment  and  his  love  of  beauty.  Of  course,  these  two 
overlap:  informational  reading  matter  often  has  some  of  the  quali- 
ties of  literature,  and  literature  often  gives  the  child  information 
and  knowledge ;  but  the  two  should  be  distinct  in  the  teacher's  mind, 
since  they  should  be  taught  in  different  ways. 

The  literature  should  predominate  all  through  the  grades,  since 
the  pupil  has  access  to  much  informational  reading  matter  in  his 
various  text-books;  and  after  the  fifth  grade,  reading  ceases  entirely 
as  a  study,  in  the  remaining  grades  literature  taking  all  the  time 
previously  given  over  to  both  literature  and  reading.  A  good  many 
teachers  think  that  literature  is  not  as  important  as  informational 
reading,  since  it  does  not  teach  the  children  facts.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  arousing  of  good,  pure,  strong  feelings  is  about  the  most 
important  act  a  teacher  can  perform,  since  it  is  feelings  that  urge 
to  good  or  evil  and  that  make  or  mar  these  boys  and  girls  who  are 
the  future  citizens  of  the  republic.  Time  spent  upon  the  reading  of 
good  literature  is  time  very  well  spent. 

The  informational  reading  matter  is  the  material  upon  which  the 
mechanics  of  reading  should  be  based.  The  teacher  should  always 
introduce  the  lessons,  of  course;  and,  in  the  first  year,  she  will  have 


52 

to  assist  the  children  with  new  words  and  unfamiliar  ideas  and  to 
read  aloud  to  furnish  them  a  model.  But,  after  that,  since  the  read- 
ing is  usually  direct  and  straightforward  prose  and  presents  few 
mental  difficulties,  she  should  shift  the  burden  of  work  upon  the 
pupils.  They  do  the  reading  aloud,  and  the  teacher  takes  advantage 
of  the  situation  to  teach  proper  position,  best  way  of  holding  the 
book,  new  words,  spelling,  pronunciation,  enunciation,  inflection, 
and  quality  of  voice — in  short  all  that  which  we  call  the  "mechanics"' 
of  reading. 

In  the  teaching  of  literature  in  the  lower  grades,  the  teacher's  work 
is  more  difficult.  She  must  present  the  lessons  in  such  a  way  as  to 
arouse  the  pupils'  interest,  and  to  give  them  hints  that  will  assist 
them  to  enjoy  the  selection;  and  in  the  conduct  of  the  lesson,  she 
must  help  the  children  get  into  the  spirit  of  the  selection,  fill  in  the 
details  of  the  scene,  become  intensely  interested  in  the  contents  and 
saturated  with  the  emotions.  Then  she  must  read  aloud,  naturally, 
pleasantly ;  and  must  have  the  children  read  after  her.  The  purpose 
of  the  lesson  in  literature  is  not  to  teach  the  mechanics  of  reading, 
but  to  start  healthy  emotions  and  train  the  children  in  the  apprecia- 
tion of  literature,  so  that  they  will  like  to  read  it  after  they  leave 
school.  The  teacher  should,  therefore,  not  emphaize  the  mechanics 
of  reading,  but  the  spirit  of  the  selection — though,  of  course,  the 
work  in  literature  will  do  much  incidentally  toward  making  the  chil- 
dren better  oral  readers. 

Oral    Reading. 

As  the  children  advance  in  the  grades  the  teacher  should  drop 
more  and  more  into  the  back-ground.  Instead  of  reading  first,  she 
will  now  have  the  children  read  first,  so  that  by  the  time  they  have 
finished  the  eighth  grade  they  can  read  expressively  and  intelligently, 
without  the  teacher's  assistance.  The  teacher  should  not  make  def- 
inite and  binding  rules  for  reading  aloud;  she  should  train  the  chil- 
dren to  express  themselves  according  to  the  natural  spirit  of  the 
selection  or  passage,  reading  gayly  or  sadly,  loudly  or  softly,  rapidly 
or  slowly,  as  the  emotion  suggests.  She  should  not  make  rules  as 
to  how  long  to  pause  after  a  punctuation  mark.  That  depends  en- 
tirely upon  the  meaning  and  emphasis.  The  teacher  should  be 
extremely  careful  not  to  let  poetry  be  read  in  a  sing-song  manner. 
Poetry  is  measured  off  into  accented  and  unaccented  syllables;  and 
there  is  a  tendency,  when  one  gets  into  the  strong  swing  of  the 
meter,  to  keep  this  meter  strictly  regular.  Sometimes  this  spoils 


53 

the  meaning  and  interferes  with  the  musical  qualities  of  the  poetry. 
The  children  should  be  taught  to  read  for  the  meaning  and  emotion 
and  to  disregard  the  metrical  accent  whenever  it  conflicts  with  the 
natural  accent. 

Silent  Reading. 

The  teacher  should  train  the  children  in  silent  reading,  since  most 
of  their  reading  in  later  life  will  be  silent.  They  should  always  r^ad 
silently  before  they  read  orally;  and  sometimes  the  teacher  should 
merely  examine  them  as  to  the  content  of  the  informational  reading 
matter  without  asking  them  to  read  aloud.  (The  literature,  espe- 
cially the  poetry,  should  be  read  aloud;  and  in  the  upper  grades  the 
children  should  take  their  books  home  and  read  aloud  in  preparation 
for  the  recitation.)  There  should  be  many  suitable  books  in  the 
library  that  the  child  may  read  in  school  or  at  home,  and  the  teacher 
should  encourage  rapid  but  intelligent  silent  reading  in  these  books. 
Often  she  should  ask  questions  to  make  sure  that  the  children  have 
mastered  the  subject  matter.  The  teacher  should  urge  the  children 
to  read  much,  and  should  train  them  in  the  power  to  enjoy  and  ap- 
preciate books,  to  the  end  that  they  may  form  good  reading  habits 
whirh  will  remain  fixed  after  the  children  leave  school. 

Dramatization. 

The  teacher  and  the  children  should  occasionally  dramatize  a  lit- 
erature lesson — that  is,  make  a  play  out  of  it.  In  a  story  in  which 
there  are  several  characters,,  let  the  children  take  the  place  of  the 
different  characters  and  play  out  the  story,  making  up  the  conversa- 
tion as  they  go  along.  They  do  not  need  a  stage  or  costumes  or 
elaborate  stage  furniture  or  objects ;  they  can  do  very  well  with  what 
they  find  in  the  school  room.  Occasionally  they  may  give  a  public 
performance,  with  home-made  costumes.  Dramatizing  is  not  diffi- 
cult, and  it  is  one  of  the  best  possible  ways  of  realizing  and  appre- 
ciating a  story.  After  the  children  have  dramatized  plays  for  some 
time,  they  will  begin  to  see  more  clearly  the  dramatic  qualities  in 
what  they  read,  and  will  read  with  more  understanding  and  enjoy- 
ment. 

Correlation. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  correlate  the  reading  and  literature 
with  the  other  branches.  If,  for  example,  you  are  studying  the  Civil 
War  period,  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  children  study  Whitman's 


54 

poem,  "My.  Captain/'  and  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech,  and  any  other 
selections  that  fit  in  well  with  the  history.  If  you  do  not  happen  to 
be  at  those  particular  lessons,  turn  to  them  anyway.  It  is  of  little 
importance  whether  or  not  you  study  the  lessons  in  order,  and  it  is 
of  great  importance  that  you  study  the  lessons  at  the  time  when  they 
will  have  the  most  significance. 

The  teacher  should  also  teach  reading  in  connection  with  the  other 
studies.  The"  pupils  should  be  taught  to  read  the  arithmetic  prob- 
lems as  intelligently  as  they  read  their  reading  lesson,  for  often  they 
fail  to  solve  the  problems  because  they  have  not  really  read  them. 
They  should  be  taught  to  get  the  ideas  out  of  their  geography  and 
history  lessons  in  the  same  manner  as  they  do  out  of  their  reading 
lessons. 

General  Outline  of  Work. 

In  the  first  five  years,  Jones'  Eeaders  are  used  as  basal  readers. 
Supplementary  readers  are  suggested  under  each  grade.  In  the  last 
three  years,  Elson's  Grammar  School  Literature  Eeaders  are  used, 
with  supplementary  work  as  suggested  in  the  following  pages. 

The  mechanical  elements  in  learning  to  read  should  be  largely 
mastered  by  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  year;  that  is,  by  the  end 
of  this  time,  the  children  should  be  able  to  master  the  subject  matter 
of  the  lessons  with  ease  and  rapidity,  and  should  be  able  to  express 
the  meaning  intelligently  and  clearly.  The  reading  process  by  this 
time  should  be  largely  unconscious;  the  child  should  not  have  to  work 
consciously  and  laboriously  at  his  reading  lesson  any  more  than  he 
has  to  labor  hard  to  do  his  speaking.  Through  the  remaining  years 
of  the  course  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  literary  phases 
of  reading:  development  of  imagination,  stimulation  of  emotions  and 
love  of  beauty,  ability  to  fill  in  the  details  of  the  story ;  and  the  power 
to  express  the  meaning  and  spirit  of  the  selection  naturally  and 
pleasingly. 

The  following  books  deal  with  the  teaching  of  reading.  It  would 
be  well  for  the  teacher  to  purchase  at  least  two  or  three  of  these 
books:  Arnold's  "Beading  and  How  to  Teach  It",  (Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.,  New  York) ;  Briggs  and  Coffman's  "Reading  in  the  Public 
Schools"  (Eow,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago)  ;  McMurry's  "Special 
Method  in  Primary  Beading"  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston)  ;  Clark's 
"How  to  Teach  Reading  in  the  Public  School"  (Scott,  Foresman  & 
Co.,  New  York).  A  book  that  deals  especially  with  the  teaching  of 
literature  is  McMurry's  "Special  Method  in  Beading  of  English 
Classics"  (Macmillan  Co.,  New  York). 


55 

FIRST   GRADE. 

The  best  authorities  agree  that  we  have  hitherto  given  too  much 
time  to  primary  reading,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  subjects  more 
important  to  children  of  this  age.  The  first  year  of  school  life  should 
be  given  to  the  child's  "own  experiences/'  to  use  Prof.  Huey's  ex- 
pression. Nature  study,  hand-work,  story-telling,  memorizing  poetry, 
conversation  about  the  child's  home  interests,  and  group  games  are 
the  most  important  means  of  leading  the  child  from  home  life  to  the 
larger,  more  organized  life  of  the  school.  Reading  in  the  first  year 
should  be  subordinated  to  real  life.  For  example,  directions  for  hand- 
work and  for  playing  games  may  be  written  on  the  blackboard  in- 
stead of  being  given  orally.  In  this  way  children  learn  that  reading 
is  a  means  of  communicating  thought,  since  they  cannot  do  the  de- 
sired thing  unless  they  can  read  the  directions.  This  habit  of  con- 
necting action  with  reading  should  begin  with  the  first  school  year. 

Children  should  learn  in  the  first  year  the  printed  forms  of  from 
three  to  five  hundred  words  used  in  their  daily  speech.  (Xo  word 
not  in  a  child's  vocabulary  should  occur  in  his  reading.)  Also  his 
ear  and  his  vocal  organs  should  be  trained  to  recognize  separate 
sounds  recurring  in  familiar  words,  for  example :  d  in  dog,  dark,  do, 
and  down,  should  be  recognized  as  the  same  sound  occurring  in  dif- 
ferent words. 

Begin  reading  in  the  first  grade  by  reading  to  children,  telling 
stories,  and  having  them  memorize  verses.  All  these  activities  pre- 
pare the  way  for  reading.  The  first  reading  by  children  must  be 
based  on  the  children's  own  activities  and  interests.  Begin  with 
action  words  and  the  names  of  familiar  objects  in  the  room.  In  every 
case  connect  the  written  symbol  with  the  action  or  object  it  repre- 
sents. The  teacher  calls  Frank  to  her  and  whispers  to  him  "run." 
She  then  says,  "This  tells  the  secret  I  told  Frank.  I  said  to  him 
'Run' ".  And  she  writes  the  word  on  the  board.  Other  devices  for 
connecting  the  word  with  the  action  will  suggest  themselves  to  the 
teacher.  To  teach  the  names  of  objects  she  may  write  the  name  of 
"Sand,"  "Book,"  "Ball,"  "Window,"  etc.,  and  pin  the  name  on  the 
object  it  represents,  so  that  these  words  will  be  learned  by  associa- 
tion. 

For  the  first  few  weeks  children's  reading  may  well  be  limited  to 
the  interpretation  of  action  words  and  names  of  objects.  It  is  not 
necessary  at  this  time  for  children  to  do  any  oral  reading.  Silent 
reading  must  precede  oral  in  every  case.  Much  bad  reading  is  caused 
by  insisting  on  oral  reading  from  the  first. 


56 

After  children  have  learned  to  act  in  response  to  written  symbols, 
(for  example,  "Throw  the  ball,"  "Catch  Tom,"  "Close  the  door") 
continue  reading  by  using  the  rhymes  children  have  memorized. 
Write  on  the  board  a  rhyme  that  does  not  contain  unusual  words. 
Suppose  this  rhyme  is  selected : 

"This  little  pig  went  to  market, 
This  little  pig  staid  at  home, 
This  little  pig  had  roast  meat, 
This  little  pig  had  none, 
This  little  pig  cried  'wee,  wee,  wee, 
They've  left  me  all  alone/  " 

Let  the  children  say  the  rhyme  over,  counting  their  fingers  for  the 
pigs  as  they  say  it.  Then  tell  one  child  to  "read"  the  first  line  as 
you  write  it  on  the  board.  Call  on  another  child  to  read  the  next 
line,  and  so  on.  The  children  are  thus  really  reading,  although  they 
do  not  know  the  separate  words.  The  approach  to  reading  is  easy 
and  natural,  not  painful  and  artificial  as  it  often  is  when  words  are 
built  up  from  their  sounds  or  letters. 

Have  words  from  the  rhyme  written  on  cards.  Select  only  the 
words  children  will  be  apt  to  use  again,  as  "this,"  "little,"  "pig," 
"went,"  "staid,"  "home,"  "cried,"  "me."  Hold  up  the  card  for  "this" 
and  ask  the  children  to  find  a  word  like  it  on  the  board.  Ask  what  the 
word  says.  Do  the  same  with  the  other  cards.  When  a  child  hesi- 
tates ask  him  to  say  over  the  rhyme  until  he  comes  to  that  word.  He 
thus  learns  to  rely  on  himself.  Play  a  game  to  see  who  can  find  and 
call  most  words.  Continue  work  of  this  kind  with  memorized  rhymes 
until  children  have  built  up  a  word  list  they  can  recognize  at  sight. 
Be  careful  to  vary  the  work  enough  to  keep  up  interest  in  it.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  stay  long  on  one  rhyme.  Begin  daily  word  drills  in  the 
form  of  games,  as  varied  in  character  as  possible.  Have  these  drills 
at  a  different  time  from  the  reading  lesson. 

After  children  have  learned  forty  or  fifty  words,  combine  these 
words  with  others  to  make  sentences  about  familiar  things.  Write 
a  sentence  on  the  board  and  ask  the  children  to  read  it.  Let  children 
whisper  sentences  to  the  teacher,  who  will  then  write  "  a  secret"  on 
the  board  for  children  to  guess.  There  is  a  real  motive  for  reading 
in  this  kind  of  work.  For  example,  the  teacher  will  say,  "Who  will 
tell  something  he  saw  on  the  way  to  school?"  "Come  and  whisper 
it  to  me."  Billy  comes  up  and  whispers,  "I  saw  a  horse."  The 
teacher  says,  "See  if  you  can  tell  what  Billy  saw."  She  writes  the 


67 

sentence  on  the  board,  and  tells  the  children  any  new  word  that  thej 
have  not  had  before,  "horse,"  for  instance.  Now  she  asks  other  chil- 
dren to  read  the  sentence  and  tell  what  Billy  saw.  Skill  must  be 
used  to  avoid  too  wide  a  range  of  words. 

Blackboard  work  and  word  drills  should  be  continued  for  some 
time — one  to  three  months — before  taking  up  a  book.  There  is  really 
a  saving  of  time  in  postponing  the  use  of  a  book.  When  the  book  is 
first  used  children  should  be  taught  how  to  hold  it  and  to  turn  the 
pages.  Do  not  allow  children  to  hold  the  book  closer  than  fifteen 
inches  from  the  eyes,  because  a  large  amount  of  eye-strain  is  the  re- 
sult of  close  reading.  The  book  must  have  very  large  print  for  little 
children.  From  the  beginning  children  should  learn  to  read  to  the 
class,  not  exclusively  to  the  teacher.  They  should  share  their  thought 
with  their  audience,  and  to  do  this  the  book  must  not  be  held  between 
the  child  and  the  audience. 

Phonics :  Ehymes  make  a  good  introduction  to  phonics.  Through 
them  children  notice  similar  sounds  in  words,  and  learn  to  build  up 
"families"  of  words.  Jill,  hill,  down,  crown,  may  easily  lead  to  other 
words  of  similar  sound.  The  phonic  work  of  the  first  year  should  be 
informal,  and  should  consist  of  games.  For  example,  pronounce  dog, 
did,  Dot,  and  ask  children  to  tell  you  other  words  that  begin  in  the 
same  way.  Then  write  "d"  on  the  board,  giving  the  sound  and  asking 
children  to  give  the  sound  also.  Be  careful  to  give  the  correct  sound 
— not  "duh."  Take  up  all  the  initial  consonants  in  this  way.  This 
phonic  drill  or  play  should  come  with  the  word  drill,  not  with  the 
reading  lesson.  Little  more  than  this  should  be  attempted  in  phonics 
the  first  year.  Indeed,  many  authorities  think  phonics  should  not  be 
begun  until  the  third  school  year,  because  it  holds  the  child  to  an 
analysis  that  taxes  him  too  much.  However,  if  the  work  is  taken 
up  as  play  rather  than  as  uninteresting  drill,  this  objection  would  be 
overcome. 

Complete  Jones'  First  Eeader  and  two  or  three  supplementary 
readers  in  this  grade. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Complete  Jones'  Second  Reader  during  this  year.  In  addition 
have 'the  children  read  two  or  three  supplementary  books  emphasiz- 
ing the  literary  side  of  reading.  Hazard's  "Three  Years  With  the 
Poets"  (Houghton  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston)  contains  excellent  poetry 
for  this  grade  and  for  the  third  and  fourth.  If  the  children  get  the 
book  for  the  second  year,  they  should  read  only  the  first  section.  Free 


58 

and  TreaclwelPs  "Beading-Literature"  is  excellent.  (Kow,  Peterson 
&  Co.,  Chicago.)  Lucia's  "Peter  and  Polly  in  Summer"  (American 
Book  Co.,  Cincinnati)  is  a  series  of  excellent  stories  for  this  grade. 
Perraulf  s  "Tales  of  Mother  Goose"  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New  York) 
furnishes  nursery  tales  for  this  and  the  third  grade. 

Do  not  attempt  to  teach  the  lessons  in  the  order  in  which  they 
come  in  the  book,  but  rearrange  them  to  suit  circumstances.  For 
example,  teach  the  lesson  on  page  101  just  before  or  just  after  the 
children  have  had  a  party.  Teach  the  lesson  on  page  124  after  a  light 
fall  of  snow.  Teach  the  lesson  on  page  177  in  connection  with  the 
nature  study  lesson  on  the  toad. 

In  general  it  is  well  not  to  read  in  one  book  until  it  is  finished, 
but  to  change  from  one  book  to  another,  selecting  the  lessons  that 
will  fit  best  with  the  seasons,  the  interests  of  the  children,  their  other 
work,  etc. 

Emphasize  this  year,  work  in  phonics,  acquiring  of  new  words, 
ability  to  read  rapidly,  to  read  aloud  intelligently  and  expressively. 
Care  must  be  taken  in  assigning  lessons,  so  that  the  pupils  may  have 
their  interest  aroused  in  the  subjects  and  may  be  put  on  the  hunt 
for  the  ideas.  For  instance,  in  assigning  the  lesson  on  page  78  it 
would  be  well  to  begin  by  asking  the 'children  if  any  of  them  have 
ever  seen  the  wind.  After  you  have  talked  about  that  with  them, 
and  they  have  agreed  that  they  have  never  seen  the  wind  itself,  you 
ask  them  how  they  know  when  the  wind  is  blowing.  Ask  them 
whether  the  wind  is  blowing  harder  when  "the  leaves  hang  trem- 
bling" or  when  the  "trees  bow  down  their  heads."  Finally  you  tell 
the  children  that  you  are  going  to  read  to  them  a  poem  that  tells 
about  the  wind  blowing  through  the  trees.  Always  take  some  time 
in  assigning  a  lesson,  and  always  prepare  your  assignment  at  least  a 
day  in  advance,  so  that  you  may  know  just  how  you  are  going  to 
introduce  the  selections. 

In  the  recitation  it  is  best  not  to  ask  the  child  to  read  one  para- 
graph or  one  sentence,  because  perhaps  that  is  not  a  natural  stopping 
place.  You  had  better  study  the  lesson  with  the  children  and  divide 
it  up  into  sections. 

Dramatize  some  of  the  lessons.  The  story  on  page  91  serves  well 
for  this  work.  Have  the  lesson  studied  first,  then  have  the  story  re- 
told orally.  Now  ask  for  four  pupils  to  take  the  parts  of  Rus,  Fus, 
Mus,  and  Tabby  Cat.  The  three  mice  talk  together  about  building 
new  houses.  Rus  gets  some  hay  and  scatters  it  in  a  circle,  then  gets 
in  it.  Fus  uses  paper  in  the  same  way.  Mus  uses  books,  which  he 


59      • 

calls  bricks.  Then  Tabby  Cat  comes  up  to  Ens'  houses  and  says, 
"Please  let  me  in."  Eus  answers,  "Oh,  no;  you  can't  come  in/'  but 
Tabby  Cat  reaches  in,  drags  him  out,  and  pretends  to  eat  him.  The 
rest  of  the  story  is  played  as  suggested  by  the  incidents  in  the  story. 

The  teacher  should  tell  and  read  many  good  stories  to  the  children 
in  this  grade.  This  provides  interest  and  entertainment,  gives  good 
material  for  language  conversations,  and  inspires  a  desire  to  read. 

Have  the  children  commit  many  poems  to  memory.  They  should 
be  asked  to  commit  only  those  poems  which  they  have  studied  and 
understand  fairly  well. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Read  Jones'  Third  Eeader  in  this  grade-  As  there  is  little  litera- 
ture in  this  book,  some  supplementary  books  containing  literature 
should  be  used.  Free  and  Treadwell's  "Reading-Literature"  Third 
Reader  (Row,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago)  ;  Heart  of  Oak,  Book  Two 
(D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New  York)  ;  and  Stevenson's  "Child  Garden  of 
Verses"  (Eand,  McNally  &  Co.,  New  York)  are  excellent.  Have 
these  supplementary  books  bought  near  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
and  change  from  one  to  the  other,  as  you  think  best. 

Continue  phonics  work.  The  common  diacritical  marks  should  be 
mastered  in  connection  with  the  reading  and  spelling. 

Give  persistent  practice  in  reading  aloud.  Insist  on  distinct  enun- 
ciation. Break  up  habits  of  reading  too  fast  or  too  slow,  too  loud  or 
too  low.  Do  not  let  any  reading  pass  that  does  not  express  the  mean- 
ing. This  implies  that  before  a  pupil  is  called  upon  to  read  aloud, 
the  teacher  must  have  satisfied  himself,  by  questioning,  that  he  under- 
stands what  he  is  trying  to  express.  If  the  pupil  has  formed  the 
habit  of  reading  only  one  word  at  a  time,  ask  him  to  read  each  sen- 
tence through  silently  before  he  reads  aloud.  All  unfamiliar  and 
difficult  ideas  must  be  learned  before  the  oral  reading  begins.  For 
example,  on  page  203,  sentence  ten,  the  pupil  must  be  led  to  see 
what  this  sentence  means,  "The  cord  was  doubled,"  else  the  story 
cannot  be  clear  and  convincing. 

Very  often  the  story  in  the  lesson  will  not  tell  all  the  details,  but 
will  leave  them  to  be  inferred.  This  is  especially  true  in  poetry.  The 
teacher  must  be  sure  that  these  details  are  understood.  For  example, 
on  page  142,  section  7,  when  the  mother  looks  at  her  daughter,  and 
smiles  and  the  girl  says,  "Yes,  indeed,  Mamma,"  the  teacher  must 


60 

understand  and  /teach  the  children  to  understand  what  the  mother's 
look  and  smile  mean. 

Continue  dramatization.  Ask  the  children  to  reproduce  orally 
some  of  the  stories  read.  (See  Language  and  Composition,  Third 
Grade,  page  70.) 

Teach  the  spelling  of  all  the  useful  new  words.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  require  the  children  to  learn  the  spelling  of  all  the  proper 
nouns  or  the  unusual  words. 

Keep  in  mind  the  difference  between  informational  reading  mat- 
ter and  literature.  (See  page  51.)  The  teacher  should  study  each 
lesson  before  she  assigns  it,  that  she  may  know  whether  she  is  going 
to  present  it  as  literature  or  as  reading  matter. 

Occasionally  have  a  "sight"  lesson.  In  this  you  introduce  the  sub- 
ject as  usual;  but  instead  of  assigning  the  subject  for  the  next  day, 
you  take  it  up  at  once.  The  children  read  silently  through  the  lesson 
as  fast  as  possible.  Then  the  teacher  asks  questions  until  she  is  sure 
the  pupils  understand  the  thought.  They  then  read  aloud.  This 
plan  encourages  rapid  reading,  and  reading  for  the  main  outline. 

Have  the  children  learn  many  poems  by  heart. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Read  Jones'  Fourth  Reader  in  this  grade.  Some  supplementary 
books  are:  Heart  of  Oak,  Book  Three  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  New 
York);  Farm  Life  Readers,  Book  Four  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  N. 
Y.)  ;  "Robinson  Crusoe"  (Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.) 

LTse  care  in  assigning  the  reading  lesson.  (See  page  58.)  Train 
in  rapid  silent  reading.  To  do  this  have  much  sight-reading,  limit 
the  time  for  the  preparation  of  lessons,  and  encourage  much  home 
reading  of  library  books.  Occasionally  do  not  have  the  lesson  read 
but  merely  retold.  Let  the  children  see  that  silent  reading  is  very 
important,  since  it  is  more  rapid  than  oral  reading,  and  since  they 
will  be  expected  to  read  silently  more  than  orally  when  they  are  out 
of  school.  Teach  the  children  not  to  move  their  lips  when  they  read 
silently. 

The  pupils  should  be  thoroughly  trained  in  dividing  a  lesson  into 
sections.  This  is  done  by  having  the  child  state  the  substance  of 
each  paragraph  before  or  after  he  reads,'  or  make  an  outline  of  the 
story,  or  reproduce  orally  the  essentials.  In  the  lesson  on  page  107, 
(Book  Five)  for  example,  the  story  naturally  divides  itself  into  the 
following  parts:  First  two  paragraphs,  preparations;  third  para- 
graph, putting  on  the  helmet;  fourth  and  fifth  paragraphs  descent; 


61 

sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  paragraphs,  the  divers  jumping  lesson; 
ninth  paragraph,  the  current;  rest  of  the  lesson,  the  ascent.  In  the  les- 
son on  page  94,  (Book  Five)  the  first  line  makes  a  general  statement; 
the  next  seven  lines  describe  the  grasshopper,  the  last  six  lines  describe 
the  cricket.  Every  lesson  has  its  outline ;  and  the  lessons  are  not  well 
learned  until  the  main  points  in  the  outline  are  discovered.  Correlate 
this  study  with  the  making  of  outlines  in  the  composition  work.  ( See 
page  74.) 

The  pupils  should  be  led  to  see  that  some  lessons  are  to  be  read 
rapidly  and  for  the  story,  while  others  are  to  be  read  slowly  and  for 
other  points.  For  example,  the  poem  on  page  64  (Book  Five)  must 
first  be  read  through  for  the  complete  thought,  then  must  be  re-ex- 
amined line  by  line,  while  the  lesson  on  page  22  should  be  read  quite 
rapidly. 

Connect  the  lessons  with  the  work  in  the  other  branches.  The  les- 
son on  page  187,  for  example,  will  go  well  with  the  history  lesson 
on  the  Pilgrims.  Be  sure  also  that  the  lesson  fits  in  well  with  the 
season  of  the  year.  For  instance,  the  poem  on  page  148  should  be 
taught  near  Christmas  time. 

Continue  memorizing.  Many  teachers  have  the  idea  that  only 
those  selections  which  contain  moral  truths  or  practical  precepts 
should  be  committed  to  memory.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  beautiful 
poetry  should  be  memorized,  whether  it  has  any  direct  moral  lesson 
or  not.  The  selection  on  page  127,  with  its  music  and  pictures  and 
its  appeal  to  the  imagination,  should  be  stored  away  in  the  mind 
along  with  the  lesson  in  the  selection  on  page  200,  with  its  eloquent 
statement  of  truth. 

Watch  the  children  in  their  reading  in  all  their  textbooks.  For 
instance,  in  the  arithmetic  lesson  have  the  examples  read  intelligently 
before  the  solution  is  attempted. 

It  is  well  to  read  in  the  fourth  grade,  and  in  each  grade  beyond, 
one  long  story  in  the  class  each  year.  "Robinson  Crusoe"  is  good 
for  this  grade.  Assign  two  or  three  chapters  at  a  time;  then  in  the 
recitation  have  the  story  in  these  chapters  told  orally,  and  a  few 
paragraphs  read  orally.  Eemember  that  the  emphasis  in  this  year, 
and  in  all  the  work  in  reading  to  follow,  should  be  placed  upon  liter- 
ature rather  than  upon  mechanical  reading. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Use  Jones'  Fifth  Header  in  this  year.  Good  supplementary  books 
are :  Heart  of  Oak,  Book  Four  (D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston)  ;  Farm 
Life  Readers,  Book  Five  (Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York); 


"Studies  in  Reading/'  Fifth  Reader  (University  Publishing  Co.,  Chi- 
cago). 

Jones'  Fifth  Reader  is  not  very  large  book.  If  you  find  it  neces- 
sary to  omit  any,  however,  let  it  be  those  selections  that  seem  too  com- 
plex and  subtle  for  the  children's  comprehension,  or  those  that  deal 
with  subjects  less  interesting.  Better  yet,  read  only  a  part  of  this 
volume  in  the  fifth  year  and  read  the  remainder  in  the  sixth  year. 

Many  of  the  selections  in  this  book  are  difficult — so  difficult  that 
the  teacher  must  be  constantly  on  her  guard  lest  her  pupils  miss  the 
point  of  some  splendid  story  or  poem.  You  can  usually  tell  whether 
the  pupils  understand  by  the  way  they  read.  If  they  have  failed  to 
perceive  the  meaning,  you  should  question  them  until  they  do  per- 
ceive it;  then,  have  them  read  again. 

When  the  children  read  poetry,  insist  that  they  bring  out  the 
thought,  regardless  of  the  rhythm.  There  is  a  natural  tendency  to 
make  a  pause  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Sometimes  this  spoils  the  sense. 
For  example,  in  the  poem  on  page  222,  there  should  be  no  pause  after 
the  fourth  line,  but  the  next  pause  should  be  in  the  fifth  line  after  the 
word  "Occasion". 

After  the  children  have  learned  to  appreciate  a  selection,  it  is  well 
to  call  their  attention  to  the  author  and  the  other  selections  of  his 
that  the  children  have  read.  There  is  an  index  of  authors  at  the 
front  of  the  reader.  It  might  be  well  occasionally  to  read  all  the 
selections  of  one  author  in  succession.  Refer  the  children  to  library 
books  by  the  same  authors.  For  example,  after  your  pupils  have  read 
the  selection  011  page  175,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  get  them  inter- 
ested in  "The  Christmas  Carol."  Do  not  spend  much  time  on  the 
biography  of  authors. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Complete  "Bison's  Grammar  School  Literature,"  Book  One.  The 
supplementary  reading  should  be  in  the  longer  classics.  Some  good 
ones  are:  ''Some  Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood"  (Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons,  New  York)  ;  Wood  Folk  at  School"  (Ginn  &  Co.,  New 
York)  ;  "Pinocchio"  (Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York). 

Elson's  books  are  full  of  most  excellent  literature.  The  teacher 
should  remember  that  literature  does  not  exist  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  imparting  information,  but  of  arousing  and  guiding  the  emo- 
tions; and  she  should  be  dissatisfied  with  any  literature  lesson  that 
does  not  accomplish  this.  Of  course,  there  is  often  decided  intel- 


63 


lectual  value  in  the  selection,  but  that  should  come  after  the  feelings 
have  been  stirred. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  brief,  specific  directions  for  teach- 
ing a  literature  lesson.  (The  teacher  should  show  the  children  how 
to  use  the  lesson  helps  in  the  readers.  These  are  very  valuable  as 
they  direct  the  children's  attention  to  the  important  phases  of  the 
study.  Every  teacher  should  have  the  manual  that  goes  with  the 
readers.)  The  usual  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows: 

First,  assignment.  In  the  assignment  the  teacher  should  ask  ques- 
tions designed  to  connect  what  the  pupil  already  knows  with  that 
which  the  lesson  has  to  give.  For  example,  in  the  lesson  on  page 
114,  the  children  might  be  asked  to  bring  in  specimens  of  jack-in- 
the-pulpits;  anemones,  and  other  flowers  mentioned  in  the  poem. 
They  should  note  the  queer  shape  of  the  flower  and  discuss  the  appro- 
priateness of  the  name.  If  Jack  really  was  a  preacher  in  the  pulpit, 
what  would  be  his  church,  what  would  serve  as  a  church  bell,  who 
would  be  his  hearers,  and  what  would  he  preach  about?  After  this 
assign  the  lesson,  telling  the  children  that  they  may  now  study  a 
poem  about  jack-in-the-pulpit. 

Second,  preparation  of  the  lesson  by  pupils,  (a)  The  pupils 
should  be  trained  to  read  silently  through  the  whole  selection  rather 
rapidly  in  order  to  understand  the  principal  thought,  the  predomi- 
nant emotion,  and  the  different  sections.  For  example,  in  the  poem 
referred  to  above,  the  principal  thought  is  the  fancy  of  jack-in-the- 
pulpit  being  a  real  preacher.  The  predominant  emotion  is  love  of 
nature.  The  sections  are  three,  arranged  in  three  stanzas,  (b) 
Then  he  should  silently  study  the  poem  more  carefully  sentence  by 
sentence,  trying  to  appreciate  the  meaning  and  force  of  the  words, 
to  see  the  pictures,  and  fill  in  details  intentionally  omitted  by  the 
author,  to  understand  the  figurative  language,  etc.  If  the  words  are 
familiar  but  evidently  have  unusual  meanings  to  the  pupil,  try  to 
infer  the  meaning  from  the  context.  If  the  words  are  entirely  un- 
familiar or  the  pupil  cannot  get  the  meaning  from  the  study  of  the 
whole  sentences,  he  should  look  up  the  word  in  the  dictionary,  (c) 
The  pupil  should  then  read  aloud,  trying  to  bring  out  the  main 
thought,  the  significance  of  the  details,  and  the  spirit  or  mood  of 
the  selection,  in  a  natural,  intelligent  and  musical  manner.  In  the 
poem  on  page  114  the  spirit  is  gay  and  lively.  There  is  danger  that 
the  reading  may  be  too  rhythmic :  that  the  children  may  be  so  carried 
away  by  the  swing  of  the  meter  that  they  spoil  the  meaning  and  make 
the  reading  monotonous. 


64 

Third,  recitation,  (a)  The  teacher  asks  questions  bearing  on  the 
main  thought  and  the  details,  designed  to  show  the  pupils'  knowledge 
and  appreciation,  to  see  if  the  pupil  has  filled  in  the  outlines,  under- 
stands the  figurative  language  and  unusual  words,  etc.  She  covers 
the  same  ground  that  the  pupils  have  gone  over  in  their  preparation, 
though,  of  course,  she  will  bring  up  points  the  children  had  not 
thought  of,  and  will  give  suggestions  that  will  lead  to  new  ideas,  (b) 
After  a  frank  and  free  discussion,  the  poem  should  be  read  aloud. 
Sometimes  the  teacher  reads  first,  sometimes  the  pupils;  but  the 
teacher  should  always  read  at  least  a  part  of  the  lesson.  The  oral 
reading  should  show  appreciation  and  understanding,  and  should  be 
natural  and  expressive.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
oral  reading.  Do  not  encourage  "elocutionary"  reading;  insist  rather 
on  simple,  natural,  appreciative  and  pleasing  expression  of  the 
thoughts  and  emotions,  and  remember  that  the  oral  reading,  if  it  is 
to  be  really  expressive,  must  come  after  intelligent  study;  the  chil- 
dren cannot  express  the  meaning  until  they  know  the  meaning  to 
express. 

Fourth,  application.  The  selection  should  not  be  allowed  to  sink 
out  of  sight  in  the  children's  minds.  It  should  be  used  in  some  way. 
(a)  It  may  be  memorized,  (b)  It  may  be  assigned  for  composi- 
tion or  language  work,  (c)  It  may  be  used  to  illustrate  or  explain 
a  lesson  in  some  other  subject,  (d)  It  may  be  applied  to  some  inci- 
dent of  the  school  or  home  life,  (e)  It  may  be  referred  to  later  in 
studying  other  literature. 

A  slightly  different  method  must  be  followed  in  the  teaching  and 
studying  of  selections  that  are  too  long  to  be  covered  in  one  recita- 
tion. In  this  case,  the  teacher  should  assign  a  chapter  or  two  at  a 
time,  in  order  to  get  through  the  selection  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
The  preparation  and  recitation  should  be  concerned  with  questions 
and  discussions  as  to  the  story,  what  may  be  expected  to  happen  next, 
the  characters,  and  how  they  develop  and  react  on  each  other,  the 
connection  and  significance  of  incidents,  the  mystery  and  suspense, 
etc.  Then 'when  the  selection  is  finished,  it  should  be  reviewed  rap- 
idly to  get  the  entire  story,  the  general  theme  and  aim,  the  outline  of 
the  plot,  the  lesson,  the  general  characteristics,  the  characters,  etc. 
The  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  read  many  library  books,  and  to 
pursue  the  same  plan  in  this  reading  that  they  do  in  class  study. 

If  the  children  have  kept  up  the  dramatization,  they  should  be 
able  to  give  quite  ambitious  plays  in  the  sixth  grade.  The  girls  can 
make  the  costumes  and  the  boys  can  provide  the  "properties" — that 


(55 

is,  the  objects  needed  in  the  play.  Invite  the  parents  in  occasionally. 
Some  work  of  this  sort  will  help  the  children  to  study  and  appre- 
ciate the  characters  and  action  in  all  that  they  read. 

Some  magazines,  such  as  the  Youth's  Companion  (Perry  Mason 
Co.,  Boston)  and  "Saint  Nicholas"  (The  Century  Co.,  New  York) 
should  be  in  the  school  room.  Perhaps  some  subscriber  in  the  neigh- 
borhood will  lend  them  to  the  school,  after  they  have  been  read. 
Encourage  the  children  to  read  these. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Complete  the  second  book  of  "Bison's  Grammar  School  Literature 
Readers."  Supplementary  reading  should  be  in  the  longer  prose  and 
poetic  classics.  The  year's  work  might  consist  of  reproductive  selec- 
tions from  Irving,  Poe,  Hawthorne,,  Longfellow  and  Clemens.  Inci- 
dentally some  instruction  may  be  given  concerning  the  lives  of  these 
authors,  but  this  should  be  brief  and  informal.  One  of  Cooper's 
stories  might  be  studied,  partly  in  class  and  partly  in  home  read- 
ings. "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans"  is  particularly  good. 

Suggestions  for  teaching  literature  have  been  given  under  the  out- 
line for  sixth  grade.  (See  page  63.)  Make  the  work  more  ma- 
ture, as  befits  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  the  nature  of  the  literature. 
Give  elementary  but  definite  instruction  about  the  fundamental  laws 
of  artistic  writing:  unity,  coherence,  proportion,  development  of 
plot,  grouping  of  characters,  use  of  descriptive  passages;  and  give 
some  instruction  in  meters;  kinds  of  poetic  feet,  principals  of  rhythm 
and  rhyme,  alliteration,  and  assonance. 

Have  the  children  memorize  and  recite  literary  selections  in  the 
literary  society.  In  case  the  child  does  not  memorize  easily,  allow 
him  to  read  a  well  prepared  selection  from  the  book. 

Encourage  much  reading  of  library  books.  The  teacher  should  be 
familiar  with  the  books  in  the  library,  and  should  often  refer  her 
pupils  to  them.  The  course  in  reading  and  literature  that  does  not 
succeed  in  getting  the  children  into  the  reading  habit  has  failed  in 
one  of  its  important  functions.  Show  the  children  how  to  "get  the 
heart  out  of  a  book;"  how  to  perceive  the  central  idea  and  purpose, 
the  lead  ing  characteristics,  how  the  book  differs  from  other  books. 
Remember  that  the  boys  and  the  girls  often  want  and  need  different 
kinds  of  books.  The  ideal  is:  Read  much,  read  rapidly,  read  with 
intelligence  and  appreciation.  Let  the  children  take  the  books  home 
with  them  or  read  in  the  school  room  when  they  have  leisure. 


66 
EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Read  Books  Three  and  Four  in  the  Elson  Grammar  School  Litera- 
ture Readers.  In  case  the  children  cannot  buy  both  books,  have  them 
get  Book  Four  rather  than  Book  Three.  Supplementary  reading 
should  be  in  the  longer  classics.  If  American  authors  have  been 
studied  in  the  seventh  grade,  British  authors  might  be  taken  up  in 
this  year.  Scott's  "Ivanhoe,"  Stevenson's  "Treasure  Island,"  and 
poems  of  Wordsworth,  Scott,  Tennyson,  Macaulay,  and  Kipling,  are 
valuable  for  this  grade. 

Continue  the  study  as  suggested  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  years. 
The  children  should  learn  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  splendid 
characters  in  the  books  they  read,  should  know  them  as  familiar 
friends,  should  allude  to  them  in  their  conversation,  should  admire 
and  imitate  their  virtues.  They  should  discuss  and  debate  the  vari- 
ous points  that  arise  in  the  action,  just  as  they  do  in  real  life. 

Continue  dramatization.  Continue  the  reading  of  literature  in  lit- 
erary society.  Continue  the  reading  of  books  in  school  and  home 
libraries.  Encourage  children  to  start  a  small  library  of  their  own. 
Teach  them  how  to  discriminate  between  choice  books  and  the  trashy 
ones  they  sometimes  find.  Try  to  persuade  each  child  in  the  eighth 
grade  to  read  one  book  a  month  during  the  year. 


LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Aims  of  the  Course. 

The  aims  of  the  course  in  language  and  composition  are : 

1.  To  train  the  child  to  examine  subjects  within  his  comprehen- 
sion; to  choose,  reject,  and  organize  his  material  on  these  subjects; 
to  present  in  speech  and  writing  his  thoughts  on  these  subjects  in 
an  orderly,  pleasing,  and  effective  manner. 

2.  To  train  the  child  in  desirable  language  habits.    Some  of  these 
habits  are: 

(a)  The  habit  of  speaking  and  writing  with  ease  and  pleasure 
and  with  clearness  and  correctness. 

(b)  The  habit  of  using  vigorous,  idiomatic,  expressive  words  ar- 
ranged in  free,  natural  sentences,  which,  in  turn,  are  arranged  in 
compact,  unified  paragraphs. 

(c)  The  habit  of  taking  care  that  his  language  be  effective  and 
of  taking  pride  in  his  linguistic  power. 

(d)  The  habit  of  using  mechanically  the  various  formal  elements 
of  speaking  and  writing;  such    as    correct    pronunciation,    distinct 
enunciation,  spelling,  paragraphing,  punctuating,  etc. 

General  Outline.  * 

It  is  obvious  that  since  the  child  is  using  the  language  from  the 
time  he  enters  school,  training  in  language  must  be  started  at  once. 
During  the  first  two  years,  however,  the  language  work  should  not  be 
given  a  special  period  on  the  daily  program,  but  should  be  connected 
with  the  other  work  of  the  school,  especially  with  reading  and  litera- 
ture. Throughout  the  entire  course,  language  should  be  taught  in 
connection  with  the  other  work  of  the  school.  It  is  a  serious  mistake 
to  give  the  pupils  the  impression  that  the  language  work  is  over  when 
the  language  period  is  spent.  Encourage  free,  vigorous  conversation 
in  connection  with  all  the  branches.  Teach  the  children  to  organize 
their  thoughts  and  insist  upon  their  using  clear,  definite,  and  correct 
words.  This  incidental  language  work  is  often  the  most  educative, 
since  it  connects  the  language  more  closely  with  the  child's  life.  In 


A  definite  outline  is  given  in  connection  with  the  work  of  each    school  year. 

cr  THr    •        A. 


of  each 

(    UNf 


68 

the  third  year  a  separate  period  should  be  given  to  language,  though 
the  pupils  should  not  use  a  text.  From  the  fourth  year  on  the  pupils 
use  the  text  and  have  a  definite  period. 

The  composition  work  should  never  have  a  separate  period.  In  the 
first  and  second  grades  composition  work  is  largely  oral  and  should 
be  combined  with  the  regular  language  work.  From  the  third  grade 
on  some  of  the  language  periods  should  be  used  for  composition  work. 

No  text  in  composition  work  should  be  used  until  the  seventh 
grade.  In  this  and  the  eighth  grade  the  pupil  should  use  the  section 
on  composition  writing  in  the  last  part  of  the  second  book  of  "Modern 
English." 

Since  the  work  of  the  first  three  years  does  not  provide  for  a  text 
book,  the  teacher  must  suggest  the  material  and  direct  the  work.  In 
order  to  do  this  she  should  have  two  or  three  language  books  from 
which  to  get  suggestions,  ideas,  plans,  and  exercises.  These  books 
will  be  valuable  also  for  work  above  the  third  grade,  since  they  will 
provide  material  for  supplementary  work.  The  following  language 
books  are  suggested: 

Live  Language  Lessons.  2  books.  University  Publishing  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. (Especially  good  for  country  and  village  teachers.) 

Primary  Language  Lessons.  1  book.  American  Book  Company, 
Cincinnati. 

Studies  in  English,  The  Language  Book.  Eow,  Peterson  &  Co., 
Chicago.  . 

Guide  Books  to  English.  2  books.  Silver,  Burdette  and  Company, 
New  York. 

The  teacher  should  have  and  study  two  or  three  good  books  on  the 
teaching  of  language  and  composition.  Teaching  in  these  subjects  is 
so  important  and  so  difficult  that  the  teacher  needs  all  the  assistance 
she  can  secure.  The  following  are  suggested: 

Barnes — English  in  the  Country  Schools.  Row,  Peterson  &  Co., 
Chicago. 

McMurry — Special  Method  in  Language.  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York. 

Hinsdale — Teaching  the  Language  Arts.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New 
York. 

/ 
FIRST  GRADE. 

The  language  and  composition  work  of  this  year  should  be  almost 
entirely  oral.  All  the  writing  that  should  be  done  is  the  copying  of 
words  and  sentences,  memorized  selections,  etc.,  marks  of  punctuation 


69 

being  copied  without  explanation.  Spelling  may  be  copied,  and  occa- 
sionally a  sentence  may  be  dictated  by  the  teacher  and  written  by 
the  pupils.  Do  not  expect  any  original  composition  this  year.. 

The  basis  of  this  year's  work  should  be  informal  conversation. 
Xature  study,  pictures,  literature  read,  stories  told  by  the  teacher, 
the  interests  and  experiences  of  daily  school  and  home  life,  the  sea- 
sons and  holidays  will  furnish  sufficient  material.  The  teacher  should 
try  to  get  the  children  to  talk  freely,  easily,  naturally  and  correctly 
on  the  topics  brought  up.  Children  should  answer  in  complete  sen- 
tences. 

Attention  should  be  given  to  such  sentences  as:  "John  and  me 
want  to  play."  "I  ate  a  apple."  "There  is  two  birds  on  the  tree." 
"I  ain't  got  my  lesson."  "  He  lias  went."  Correct  these  and  similar 
blunders  without  explanation,  but  always  give  the  correct  form  and 
have  the  child  repeat  it.  Enlarge  the  child's  vocabulary  by  suggest- 
ing a  better  word  instead  of  the  one  he  has  used.  Make  these  con- 
versations informal  and  pleasant.  Always  base  them  on  topics  inter- 
esting to  the  children. 

Some  reproduction  work  can  be  done.  The  teacher  tells  or  reads 
an  interesting  nursery  tale,  such  as  "The  Three  Bears."  The  chil- 
dren ask  and  answer  questions  about  the  story  until  it  is  well  under- 
stood. Then  they  tell  the  story  as  effectively  and  dramatically  as 
possible.  Very  little  criticism  of  the  language  should  be  allowed, 
since  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  reproduce  with  confidence 
and  pleasure.  Mistakes  in  accuracy  of  reproduction  and  the  most 
serious  errors  in  language  should  be  pointed  out  after  the  story  has 
been  retold. 

Some  of  the  simpler  stories  told  or  read  should  be  dramatized. 
Some  of  the  Mother  Goose  Jingles  furnish  good  material.  (See 
page  53.) 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Oral  English  should  be  the  basis  of  this  year's  work.  Continue 
the  conversations  as  in  first  year,  based  on  literature,  pictures,  nature 
study,  field  excursions,  games,  activities,  etc.  Ask  questions  that 
involve  several  related  sentences  in  the  answer,  such  as,  "How  do  you 
make  a  paw-paw  whistle?"  "How  do  you  sweep  a  room?"  "How 
do  you  play  prisoner's  base?"  Train  the  children  in  sticking  to  the 
story,  in  proper  position  while  standing,  in  speaking  directly  to  the 
other  children  instead  of  the  teacher,  in  distinct  enunciation  and  easy 
conversational  tone.  Incidentally  correct  such  errors  as  "I  can  write 


70 

good,"  "Mother  learned  me  my  lessons/'  "John  don't  know  how  to 
play,"  "I  taken  my  slate  home."  Train  in  the  use  of  "shall"  and 
"will,"  "may"  and  "can,"  the  common  irregular  verbs,  etc. 

Try  to  enlarge  the  pupils'  vocabulary.  Teach  them  to  distinguish 
between  easy  synonyms. 

Continue  oral  reproduction  of  stories.  Encourage  the  children 
to  retell  stories  they  have  learned  at  home.  Train  the  children  to 
make  up  and  tell  simple  stories  based  on  pictures.  Train  them  to 
tell  the  essentials  of  stories  they  read,  leaving  out  details. 

Dramatize,  as  in  the  first  grade. 

Study  a  number  of  fables  with  the  children,  and  encourage  them 
to  make  up  simple  fables  of  their  own  and  tell  them  orally.  Here 
is  a  fable  told  by  a  second  grade  pupil :  "Once  a  rabbit  was  running 
away  from  some  dogs  and  he  wanted  to  get  into  a  hole  in  some  rocks. 
But  some  dirt  had  got  into  the  hole.  He  got  into  another  hole  and 
got  away  from  the  dogs.  Then  he  said,  'Tomorrow  I  will  go  and  dig 
that  dirt  out,  so  I  can  get  in  the  next  time/  But  the  next  day  he 
forgot  all  about  it.  A  few  days  after,  the  dogs  got  after  him  and 
were  close  behind  him.  He  ran  up  to  the  hole  and  could  not  get  in, 
and  the  dogs  caught  him  before  he  could  run  into  another  hole.  It 
served  him  right  for  being  so  careless." 

The  written  work  should  be  very  simple  in  this  grade.  Copying, 
writing  from  easy  dictation,  writing  of  spelling  lists  and  of  memory 
selections  is  recommended.  Some  class  exercises  in  original  compos- 
ing should  be  worked  out.  For  example,  the  teacher  asks  the  chil- 
dren to  make  up  sentences  about  a  cow.  The  pupils  present  such  sen- 
tences as :  "The  cow  gives  milk ;"  "The  cow  has  horns ;"  "The  cow 
is  red  ;"  "The  cow  eats  grass."  The  teacher  writes  these  on  the  board 
one  by  one.  Then  she  and  the  class  rearrange  the  sentences  in 
their  natural  order;  finally  the  pupils  copy  the  revised  work,  writing 
all  the  sentences  in  one  paragraph. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  the  use  of  capital  letters  at  beginning  of 
sentences  and  lines  of  poetry ;  in  the  pronoun  I ;  in  proper  nouns,  days 
of  week,  names  of  months.  The  following  marks  of  punctuation 
should  be  taught:  period  and  question  mark  at  ends  of  sentences; 
period  after  initials  and  common  abbreviations;  apostrophe  in  pos- 
sessive case;  comma  in  series  and  after  names  of  persons  addressed. 
Observe  the  use  of  these  marks  in  the  readers. 

Have  the  children  start  a  composition  book  in  which  they  copy  their 
finished  work.  Have  plenty  of  seat  work  in  writing,  basing  all  work 
on  interesting  subjects. 


71 
THIRD  GRADE. 

A  definite  language  period  should  now  be  assigned,  but  the  inci- 
dental work  in  language  should  be  continued.  The  teacher  should 
outline  her  work  for  this  class  at  least  a  week  ahead,  for  she  must 
direct  the  children  orally  and  keep  them  working  steadily  at  some 
definite  aim. 

The  work  should  still  be  largely  oral.  Continue  the  reproduction 
of  stories,  poems,  etc.  Children  should  be  asked  to  tell  the  other 
children  about  books  they  have  read,  sketching  the  story  and  giving 
brief  character  descriptions  at  the  suggestion  of  the  teacher. 

So  called  "oral  composition"  work  should  be  started  in  this  grade. 
The  teacher  should  assign  easy  subjects  to  the  pupils  such  as :  "How 
to  plant  corn;"  "What  I  saw  in  the  blacksmith's  shop;"  "A  fishing 
trip" — subjects  drawn,  in  general,  from  the  actual  experience  of  the 
pupils.  The  pupils  prepare  talks  of  two  minutes  or  more  on  these 
topics,  then  speak  to  the  class.  Teacher  and  class  criticize  sympa- 
thetically on  whether  the  subject  was  clearly  presented,  whether  the 
points  were  arranged  in  the  best  order,  whether  the  pupil  spoke  dis- 
tinctly and  used  correct  English. 

Original  stories  based  on  pictures  should  be  told.  Occasionally 
part  of  the  story  may  be  told  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  be  asked 
to  complete  it.  Pupils  in  this  grade  should  be  taught  in  their  litera- 
ture lesson  to  study  the  arrangement  of  incidents  in  such  a  way  as 
to  lead  up  to  the  important  point,  and  should  be  encouraged  to  use 
this  method  in  their  own  stories.  Imaginative  stories,  such  as  fairy 
stories,  Santa  Glaus  stories,  etc.,  stories  in  which  the  children  im- 
personate some  animal  or  object  are  good  for  this  grade.  Dramatiza- 
tion should  be  continued. 

Tn  all  this  oral  work  the  teacher  should  try  to  build  up  the  chil- 
dren's vocabulary  and  power  to  discriminate  between  words,  and 
should  break  up  slovenly  habits  of  speech  and  enunciation.  Care 
must  be  taken  also  that  the  children  do  not  form  the  habit  of  using 
too  many  short,  disconnected  sentences,  or  long  sentences  the  clauses 
of  which  are  joined  by  "and."  However,  the  teacher  must  take  heed 
lest  she  destroy  the  pupils'  naturalness  and  expressiveness  and  make 
them  too  conscious.  Close  watch  should  be  kept  on  the  children's 
language,  and  kindly,  patient  criticisms  given  whenever  needed. 

The  written  work  of  this  year  should  be  of  two  kinds :  paragraphs, 
and  letters. 

Toward  the  beginning  of  the  year  pupils  should  be  taught  to  write 
brief  paragraphs  on  simple  topics,  such  as  those  assigned  for  oral  com- 


72 

positions.  The  teacher  should  assign  the  topics  and  discuss  them 
with  the  pupils,  showing  them  definitely  how  to  plan  and  arrange  their 
material.  Pupils  should  write  their  paragraphs  in  school  with  pencil 
and  the  next  day  should  read  their  paragraphs.  Teacher  and  class 
should  discuss  the  clearness  and  correctness,  the  expressiveness  and 
naturalness,  the  unity  and  coherence  of  the  composition.  As  much 
time  as  possible  should  be  spent  in  this  discussion.  Pupils  should 
then  copy  the  paragraphs  with  pen  and  ink  in  their  permanent  com- 
position book.  Continue  this  work  throughout  the  year.  The  teacher 
must  always  assist  in  the  preparation  and  discussion  of  the  para- 
graphs, but  should  gradually  put  the  work  more  and  more  upon  the 
pupils.  The  topics  should  be  stories  and  explanations,  with  an  occa- 
sional description,  and  should  always  be  drawn  from  the  children's 
life  or  reading.  Study  the  paragraphs  in  reading  and  literature  les- 
sons. 

Letter  writing  should  be  studied  this  year.  Have  the  children 
write  letters  of  one  paragraph  to  friends  and  relatives,  telling  them 
of  interesting  happenings  of  current  interest.  Whenever  possible, 
have  these  letters  copied  after  discussion  and  mailed  to  the  persons 
addressed.  Insist  on  neatness,  legibility,  naturalness,  etc.  Occasion- 
ally read  a  model  letter,  that  the  children  may  -learn  to  catch  the 
spirit  of  the  letter.  (An  excellent  book  for  this  purpose  is  "Letters 
to  Children  Written  by  Famous  People."  Hinds  &  Noble,  New  York. 
This  book  can  be  used  in  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  grades.) 

The  following  letter  is  poor.  It  lacks  unity  because  it  takes  up 
too  many  subjects ;  and  it  lacks  coherence  because  the  sentences  are 
disconnected. 

"Dear  Grandpa :  We  played  in  the  snow  yesterday.  Papa  took 
me  to  town  Saturday.  We  get  lots  of  milk  now.  I  like  to  go  to 
school.  Our  telephone  was  broken  down,  but  it  is  fixed  up  now.  How 
is  grandma?  We  are  all  well.  This  is  my  first  letter. 

Your  loving, 

Susie." 

The  following  letter  is  much  better : 

"Dear  Grandpa:  We  have  been  having  good  times  this  week. 
There  was  a  big  snow  and  we  all  played  games  like  fox  and  geese, 
snow  ball  and  building  snow  men.  Papa  brought  us  to  school  yes- 


73 

terday  on  our  sled.     I  tell  you  old  Frank  and  Jerry  had  to  pull  hard 
up  Creek  Hill,  for  the  snow  was  awful  deep. 

Don't  you  think  this  is  a  good  letter  for  the  first  one? 

Your  grandson, 

William." 

In  learning  to  write  paragraphs  children  must  learn  certain  forms. 
They  must  learn :  to  indent  the  first  line  of  the  paragraph  and 
close  the  paragraph  wherever  the  last  line  happens  to  fall;  to  divide 
the  word  between  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  line;  to  leave  a  wide 
margin  at  the  left  of  the  sheet.  In  writing  letters  the  pupils  should 
be  taught  the  conventional  usages;  where  to  place  the  address  of  the 
writer  and  the  date,  how  to  address  the  correspondent,  how  and  where 
to  write  the  complimentary  close  and  the  signature,  how  to  address 
the  envelope. 

In  all  the  written  work  insist  on  correct  spelling  and  correct  gram- 
matical usage.  Teach  punctuation :  the  dash,  hyphen,  apostrophe, 
quotation  marks.  Teach  simple  abbreviations:  "Mr.,"  "Mrs.," 
"Rev.,"  "W.  Va.,"  "St.,"  "P.  S."  Teach  simple  contractions:  "don't," 
"doesn't,"  "isn't,"  "wasn't,"'  "hasn't,"  "can't"  "it's,"  "I'm,"  etc. 

Have  some  writing  every  day  during  this  year.  Occasionally  assign 
written  work  in  connection  with  nature  study,  arithmetic,  literature; 
and  insist  that  all  written  work  be  done  neatly,  accurately,  and 
legibly. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

This  year  for  the  first  time  the  pupils  use  a  text.  Book  One  of 
"Modern  English"  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  fourth  grade 
work  should  complete  Part  One  to  lesson  62  and  Part  Two 
to  lesson  124.  The  lessons  in  Part  Two  should  be  scattered  along 
through  the  year,  thus  providing  sufficient  exercises  in  letter  writ- 
ing. Do  not  attempt  to  take  the  lessons  in  their  order.  So  arrange 
them  that  the  oral  and  the  written  work  will  be  mingled  in  the  proper 
proportions.  "A  little  writing  every  day  and  not  too  much  any  day," 
is  the  ideal. 

Pupils  that  have  been  trained  according  to  the  directions  given  for 
the  first  three  years  will  find  much  of  the  text-book  work  of  the  fourth 
year  a  good  review  of  facts  already  learned.  Such  pupils  should  be 
given  much  supplementary  work.  In  fact,  the  teacher  must  consider 
the  language  book  merely  as  a  guide  and  must  constantly  bring  into 
the  language  lesson  work  from  other  subjects,  and  from  the  interests 


74 

and  activities  of  the  children.  Language  cannot  be  taught  from  any 
book;  and  the  teacher  that  confines  herself  to  the  exercises  in  the 
book  will  fail  to  give  adequate  and  interesting  training  in  language. 

The  untrained  teacher  should  not  omit  many  of  the  lessons  from 
the  book.  Even  though  the  lessons  seem  disconnected  with  language 
work,  they  are  excellent  to  start  discussions  and  get  the  children  to 
thinking  and  talking;  and  that  is  the  basis  of  language  work.  The 
teacher  should  be  very  careful,  however,  to  make  the  lessons  alive 
with  interest.  She  should  never  assign  a  lesson  by  saying  merely: 
"Take  the  next  lesson/'  She  must  introduce  the  topic  in  such  a  way 
that  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  see  the  point  in  the  lesson,  to  know  what 
they  are  expected  to  do.  For  example,  in  assigning  the  poem  in  les- 
son 38,  it  would  be  well  to  introduce  the  theme  by  talking  of  how 
John  and  William  differ  in  talents,  how  a  horse's  work  differs  from  a 
cow's,  how  a  tree's  value  differs  from  a  fence's.  Then  bring  up  the 
lesson  by  asking  how  a  mountain  and  squirrel  differ  in  talents  and 
tell  the  children  that  they  are  now  about  to  study  a  lesson  that  tells 
how  a  little  squirrel  proved  that  he  had  talents  as  distinctive  as  those 
of  a  big  mountain. 

The  lessons  contain  directions  for  the  children ;  but  they  cannot 
follow  these  directions  without  assistance.  For  example,  in  lesson 
43  the  pupils  need  some  help  in  learning  the  story  from  the  outline 
given.  The  teacher  must  not  confine  herself  to  the  directions  and 
questions  provided  in  the  book;  she  must  add  suggestions  of  her  own 
based  on  her  knowledge  of  the  pupils'  experience.  Do  not  let  the 
lessons  be  merely  book  study. 

Whether  the  suggestions  are  drawn  from  the  book  or  not,  the  oral 
composition  work  of  the  third  grade  should  be  continued.  The  pupils 
may  now  make  notes  from  which  to  speak.  The  topics  should  be 
practical,  definite  and  vital.  Have  children  report  stories  and  make 
oral  reports  on  the  books 'read. 

The  lessons  in  part  one  provide  much  writing  and  the  exercises- 
in  letter  writing  in  part  two  provide  much  more;  but  at  least  once 
a  week  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  write  a  composition  of  two 
or  more  paragraphs  on  some  interesting  topic.  Most  of  these  should 
be  taken  from  life,  such  as:  "A  Trip  to  the  Fair,"  "How  to  Make 
a  Sled,"  "My  Grandfather's  Home."  Some  of  them  may  be  imagina- 
tive subjects,  such  as  "The  Autobiography  of  a  Penny/'  "A  Trip  to 
the  Moon,"  "What  the  School  Bell  Saw."  If  the  teacher  can  secure 
inexpensive  pictures,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children  paste  them 


75 

in  their  composition  books  and  write  descriptions  and  stories  about 
them. 

During*  this  year  the  children  should  be  taught  to  construct  sim- 
ple outlines  before  they  begin  to  write.  For  example,  if  they  are  to- 
write  about  "Our  Farm/'  they  should  make  out  an  outline  somewhat 
like  this : 

Location  and  Size — location  of  orchard,  meadows,  streams,  build- 
ings. 

What  we  raise. 

Each  division  of  the  outline  should  represent  one  paragraph  in 
the  composition.  If  the  pupils  do  not  make  an  outline  before  they 
begin  to  write,  they  will  not  plan  the  work  logically  and  definitely,, 
will  leave  out  important  points  and  bring  in  unimportant  ones.  In 
criticizing  this  work  the  teacher  should  be  judicious  and  sympathetic, 
calling  attention  to  the  grossest  errors,  but  at  the  same  time  encour- 
aging the  children  to  express  themselves  easily  and  freely.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  criticize  only  one  type  of  error  in  each  group  of  com- 
positions. Show  the  children  how  to  criticize  their  own  work. 

Continue  the  work  in  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs.  These 
have  much  of  the  educative  value  of  the  lon*g  composition  and  are 
more  convenient  as  units  of  writing.  In  this  grade  begin  to  train 
the  pupils  in  the  use  of  the  "topic  sentence" ;  the  sentence  placed  near 
the  beginning  of  the  paragraph,  which  tells  or  suggests  the  substance 
of  the  whole  paragraph. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  consult  the  dictionary  to  look  up 
the  spelling,  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  words.  The  teacher  must 
show  the  children  how  to  find  words,  to  interpret  the  abbreviations,, 
etc.  It  would  be  well  to  have  the  children  purchase  a  small  dictionary 
for  their  own  use.  Webster's  Common  School  Dictionary  (American 
Book  Co.,  Cincinnati)  is  perhaps  the  best  for  grade  work. 

Insist  on  correct  spelling  in  all  written  work.  Eeview  the  rules  of 
punctuation  already  given,  and  teach  the  simple  rules  for  use  of 
comma,  semicolon,  colon,  exclamation  mark,  etc. 

Take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  in  every  lesson  to  teach 
spoken  and  written  English.  In  the  arithmetic  lesson,  for  example, 
teach  neatness  of  writing  and  arrangement,  clearness  and  correct- 
ness of  language,  etc.  In  literature  study  the  use  of  words  and 
help  the  pupils  to  add  words  to  their  speaking  and  writing  vocabu- 
lary; study  the  construction  of  sentences  and  point  out  that  John's 
sentences  are  too  long  and  Henry's  too  short  as  compared  with  what 
they  are  reading;  study  the  paragraphing  to  see  how  authors  organize 


76 

and  unify  their  paragraphs  and  connect  them  with  each  other. 
Encourage  informal  arguments  -concerning  lessons  in  literature,  his- 
tory etc. 

FIFTH   GRADE. 

During  this  grade  the  first  and  second  parts  of  book  one  should 
be  completed,  the  lessons  from  Part  Two  being  scattered  throughout 
the  term,  as  in  the  fourth  grade. 

Supplement  the  book  study  with  much  supplementary  work.  In 
assigning  and  studying  the  lessons  in  the  book  be  sure  to  arouse 
thought  and  intelligent  expression.  (See  suggestions  in  fourth 
grade. ) 

Continue  oral  and  written  compositions.  Encourage  the  children 
to  introduce  fun  and  humor  into  their  stories.  Continue  the  work 
in  writing  single  paragraphs  with  topic  sentences,  and  longer  com- 
positions of  three  or  more  paragraphs,  with  outlines,  written  once 
a  week.  Have  pupils  criticize  each  others'  language.  Emphasize  tHe 
simple  grammatical  rules  in  the  book  and  show  the  pupils  that  they 
must  follow  these  rules  in  speaking  and  writing. 

In  this  grade  children  may  start  keeping  diaries.  The  teacher 
should  help  them  for  a  week  or  two  and  show  them  what  they  should 
record  each  day,  then  should  encourage  them  to  continue  the  work. 
From  time  to  time  the  teacher  should  ask  about  the  diaries  and  give 
suggestions. 

Occasionally  the  pupils  should  be  asked  to  take  notes  on  some- 
thing the  teacher  reads,  or  on  the  talks  given  by  visitors.  The 
teacher  and  class  should  criticize  these  notes  from  the  standpoint 
of  fullness,  clearness,  accuracy,  etc.  Some  days  after  the  notes  have 
been  taken,  let  the  pupils  expand  them  and  reproduce  the  original. 

Simple  and  informal  debating  should  now  be  introduced.  The 
questions  should  arise  naturally  from  the  lessons;  in  agriculture, 
"Is  this  community  best  adapted  to  fruit  raising  or  cattle  raising?" 
in  history  "'Did  Washington  do  more  for  his  country  than  Lincoln?" 
in  literature.  ''Should  the  Pied  Piper  have  taken  the  children  out 
of  Hamelin  ?"  Questions  arising  in  school  may  be  debated.  For  exam- 
ple, "Should  you  snow-ball  a  boy  that  does  not  want  to  snow-ball?" 
(Connect  with  lesson  98,  page  83.)  Have  these  debates  in  con- 
nection with  the  recitations  in  the  different  subjects.  Let  each 
pupil  choose  one  side  or  the  other  and  set  forth  his  opinions  briefly 
and  forcibly.  The  teacher  should  preside  and  should  insist  on  pupils 
sticking  to  the  subject,  showing  courtesy  to  an  opponent,  and  obeying 


77 

parliamentary  laws;  and  she  should  occasionally  throw  in  a  thought- 
producing  question. 

Continue  the  dictionary  work.  However,  do  not  send  the  children 
to  the  dictionary  unless  it  is  necessary.  In  the  literature  lesson, 
for  example,  it  is  much  better  to  discover  the  meaning  of  the  word, 
whenever  possible,  by  examining  the  whole  sentence  and  seeing  the 
significance  of  the  word  in  the  sentence.  For  instance,  in  lesson 
95,  have  the  children  infer  the  meaning  of  "mock"  in  the  third 
sentence.  The  dictionary  would  not  help  much  here  for  it  would 
give  some  word  like  "sham",  which  is  equally  unfamiliar.  The.  teach- 
er should  not  insist  on  the  pupil's  being  able  to  give  a  dictionary  defi- 
nition ;  if  they  know  what  the  word  means,  can  give  a  synonym  for 
it,  or  can  use  it  in  an  intelligent  sentence,  they  know  the  word  well 
enough. 

Encourage  pupils  to  enlarge  and  enrich  their  speaking  and  writ- 
ing vocabularies  by  observing  and  using  good  words  they  meet  in  their 
reading.  But  the  teacher  must  be  sensible  in  this  matter.  She  should 
not  urge  the  pupils  to  acquire  bookish,  unusual  words,  but  colloquial, 
suggestive,  usable  words.  To  preserve  the  child's  naturalness  and 
vigor  and  at  the  same  time  refine,  correct,  and  enrich  his  language 
is  difficult;  but  the  teacher  must  undertake  no  less  a  task. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Complete  Part  Three  of  the  first  book  in  this  year.  A  good  deal 
of  practical  grammar  is  scattered  through  these  lessons.  See  to  it  that 
the  children  learn  these  rules,  and,  more  important  yet,  that  they  ob- 
serve them  in  their  speaking  and  writing.  Rearrange  the  exercises 
and  lessons  whenever  necessary,  so  that  the  oral  and  written  work 
alternate  and  combine  well.  Spend  some  time  in  assigning  each 
lesson,  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  save  some  time  in  studying. 

Continue  the  work  in  oral  composition,  paragraph-writing,  and 
writing  of  whole  compositions.  In  all  written  work,  except  friend- 
ly letters,  outlines  should  be  required.  These  outlines  should  not 
be  very  complex  but  they  should  be  definite.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
assign  and  discuss  the  topic  one  day,  have  the  outline  written  and 
discussed  the  next  day,  and  the  composition  written  the  following 
day.  Insist  that  the  pupils  plan  all  written  work  carefully  before 
beginning  to  write.  They  should  know  the  number  of  paragraphs,  the 
order  in  which  they  are  to  come,  and  the  subject  matter  of  each, 
before  they  start  writing.  After  they  have  prepared  the  outline, 


78 

encourage  them  to  write  freely  and  naturally.  Whenever  absolutely 
necessary,  they  may  change  the  outline  <as  they  are  writing  their 
composition,  but  they  should  always  be  called  upon  to  give  the  reason 
for  the  change. 

Continue  the  writing  of  letters.  Arrange  a  correspondence  between 
the  pupils  of  your  school  and  those  of  a  school  in  some  other  part 
of  the  state.  Have  imaginary  letters  written  by  travelers  in  for- 
eign lands,  or  by  famous  persons  in  history  to  their  families,  or  by 
a  dog  to  its  absent  master.  In  case  the  school  is  ordering  any  books 
or  supplies,  or  any  pupil  has  occasion  to  write  a  business  letter,  make 
it  a  class  exercise  and  send  the  best  letter  written. 

In  this  grade  the  teacher  should  begin  to  criticize  the  written 
work  more  closely.  Mistakes  should  be  indicated  by  symbols  ("Sp" 
for  misspelled  word;  "Cap"  for  using  a  small  letter  instead  of  a  cap- 
ital letter;  "SI"  for  using  a  capital  letter  instead  of  a  small  letter,  etc.) 
Criticisms  may  be  made  in  red  ink.  In  order  to  make  sure  that  the 
pupils  study  the  criticisms,  use  the  following  plan:  have  the  chil- 
dren write  on  only  one  side  of  the  page  in  their  composition  books, 
leaving  a  wide  margin  at  the  left  of  the  page.  Make  your  criticisms 
in  this  margin.  Then  when  you  hand  the  book  back,  have  the  children 
write  the  correct  forms  just  opposite  the  incorrect  forms,  not  re- 
writing the  entire  sentences,  but  only  that  part  involved  in  the 
error.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  have  the  children  rewrite  the  whole 
composition,  except  in  case  of  extreme  carelessness. 

During  this  year  the  children  should  write  brief  newspaper  articles 
on  the  school  activities.  If,  for  example,  you  have  had  an  entertain- 
ment in  the  room  or  school,  conduct  afterwards  a  class  exercise  in 
which  the  teacher  and  the  class  discuss  what  should  be  written,  num- 
ber of  paragraphs,  etc. ;  then  have  each  child  write  an  account  of  the 
entertainment.  Let  them  vote  on  the  best  article  as  another  class 
exercise,  indicating  its  good  points  and  suggesting  improvements. 
Then  have  the  writer  copy  his  article  and  send  it  to  a  local  or  county 
newspaper. 

Continue  work  in  dramatization.  Study  a  story  or  poem  in 
the  literature  class;  then  hare  the  children  write  out  the  dramati- 
zation, supplying  stage  directions  and  conversation.  Then  have  the 
story  acted  according  to  the  best  dramatization. 

Continue  the  work  in  debating.  Assign  questions  that  lie  within 
the  experience  and  reading  of  the  children.  Have  the  pupils  make 
outlines  of  what  they  are  going  to  say  and  speak  from  these  outlines. 


79 

Do  this  in  connection  with  the  subject  out  of  which  the  question 
arises. 

Encourage  the  children  to  take  pride  in  their  spoken  and  written 
language.  Encourage  them  to  criticize  each  other  sympathetically 
and  with  the  desire  to*  help  improve  each  other.  Teach  language  all 
the  time. 

SEVENTH   GRADE. 

Part  One  of  the  second  book  of  "Modern  English''  and  Part  Three 
over  to  lesson  16  should  be  completed  this  year.  Alternate  the  lessons 
in  Part  Three  with  those  of  Part  One,  so  that  the  work  in  composition 
is  scattered  throughout  the  year. 

Part  One  consists  almost  entirely  of  work  in  grammar.  It  is  a  waste 
of  time  to  attempt  to  teach  pupils  all  the  grammar  in  these  lessons. 
'  It  is  much  better  to  have  a  plan  somewhat  like  this :  Mondays,  whole 
compositions;  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays,  text-book  grammar;  Wednes- 
days, oral  composition  work;  Fridays,  paragraphs,  letters,  debates, 
dramatization,  etc. 

In  order  to  cover  Part  One  it  will  be  necessary  to  omit  many  sec- 
tions of  the  book.  This  should  be  done,  since  many  of  them  deal  with 
minute  grammatical  details  that  are  of  little  or  no  value  in  teaching 
the  children  to  speak  and  write.  Some  of  the  material  that  may  be 
omitted  is:  Ex.  7;  Exs.  14,  15,  30;  Chaps  19,  20,  21;  Exs.  40,  41; 
Pars.  89,  90;  Ex.  51;  Chaps.  29,  31,  32;  Ex.  66;  Chap.  35;  Exs. 
72,  75,  80;  Chaps.  41,  42;  Exs.  91,  93,  94,  97,  100,  101;  Pars. 
153,  157,  163,  181;.  Ex.  103;  Chap.  54. 

Much  more  may  easily  be  omitted;  and  the  long  and  tiresome  exer- 
cises should  be  greatly  shortened.  The  teacher  should  test  all 
grammatical  material  by  examining  it  to  see  if  it  assists  in  training 
pupils  in  practical,  intelligent  speaking  and  writing;  any  material 
that  does  not  meet  this  test  should  be  rigidly  excluded.  In  some 
places  the  teacher  will  have  to  bridge  the  gap  left  by  the  omitted 
lessons,  but  this  can  easily  be  done.  Leave  out  all  the  elaborate  and 
complex  machinery  of  grammar  and  teach  only  the  barest  essentials. 
Teach  these  plainly  and  follow  them  up  in  the  language  of  the  pupils. 

Continue  the  oral  work  and  writing  of  the  previous  grades.  Make 
use  of  Part  Three  as  suggested  above.  Emphasize  during  this  year  the 
construction  of  sentences.  They  should  be  neither  too  long  nor  too 
short;  an  average  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  words  is  desirable,  though 
some  sentences  will  be  longer  and  others  somewhat  shorter.  Train 
in  mixing  declarative,  interrogative,  exclamatory,  and  imperative  sen- 


80 

tences.  Train  in  writing  complex  sentences;  children  usually  ex- 
press themselves  too  frequently  in  simple  and  compound  sentences. 
See  to  it  that  the  sentences  have  clearness,  force,  unity,  coherence  and 
variety.  Work  of  this  kind  must  be  done  patiently  and  prudently,  so 
that  the  children  may  retain  their  naturalness  while  attaining  other 
desirable  qualities.  Study  sentences  in  the  literature  lesson  and  help 
the  pupils  to  model  their  sentences  after  the  easy-flowing,  well  con- 
structed sentences  they  find  in  the  prose  of  good  authors. 

Eeview  and  apply  constantly  the  facts  and  rules  of  punctua- 
tion. Continue  the  dictionary  work.  The  pupils  should  now  consult 
the  large  dictionary  and  should  be  trained  to  look  not  only  for  the 
meaning  and  spelling  but  for  the  way  in  which  the  word  is  used,  syn- 
onyms, etc.  Send  the  pupils  to  the  dictionary  to  settle  practical 
questions  of  language.  For  example,  a  child  has  used  this  sentence: 
"We  attended  the  social."  Eaise  the  question  as  to  whether  "social" 
is  the  correct  word  and  ask  the  pupils  to  find  out.  If  you  can  get 
a  child  to  consult  the  dictionary  once  a  day,  you  have  put  him  on  the 
road  to  a  good  -education. 

If  the  diary  work  started  in  the  fifth  grade  has  not  been  kept 
up,  it  may  be  started  again  this  year.  Pupils  should  always  be  en- 
couraged to  keep  account  books  of  the  money  received  and  spent  by 
them.  Continue  the  writing  of  articles  for  newspapers.  In  country 
schools,  send  a  weekly  letter*  to  a  county  paper.  Have  the.  child ron 
gather  the  items  and  write  them  out  and  arrange  them  as  a  class 
exercise. 

Continue  close,  but  kindly  criticism  of  language,  both  spokon  mil 
written.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  help  each  other.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  group  students  in  pairs,  the  two  to  work  together  in  prepara- 
tion, writing,  and  revision  of  compositions.  Occasionally  keen  a 
composition  a  week  or  two,  then  hand  it  back  to  the  writer  for  his 
own  criticisms. 

A  literary  society  should  be  organized  this  year  for  seventh  and 
eiirhth  grade  pupils.  Meetings  should  be  held  in  th-1  uveninir,  if 
possible ;  and  the  children  should  elect  their  own  officers.  The  teach- 
er sliould  serve  as  critic.  The  program  should  consist  of  music,  the 
reading  of  good  literature,  reproductions  of  interesting  stories  and  an 
occasional  dramatization,  articles  on  the  various  activities  of  the 
school,  a  school  paper  of  jokes,  news  items,  and,  whenever  possible,  a 
'.lebate.  Nothing  will  give  more  encouragement  to  English  work  than 
a  literary  society. 


81 

If  a  society  cannot  be  organized,  the  school  should  at  least  issue 
a  weekly  paper.  It  should  be  made  up  of  the  best  composition  work 
of  the  week,  of  special  articles,  of  jokes,  items,  advertisements,  etc. 
Perhaps  some  pupil  will  copy  the  paper  on  his  typewriter,  or  perhaps 
a  mimeograph  copy  can  be  made. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  bulletin  board  upon  which  to  post  notices,  pro- 
grams, etc.  The  teacher  should  carefully  watch  the  language  used  and 
criticize  it  as  occasion  offers. 

A  verse-making  class  may  interest  some  of  the  pupils.  It  may  be 
held  at  noon  or  after  school.  It  is  best  not  to  take  any  of  the  regular 
time  of  the  school  for  this  work. 

During  this  year  assign  much  written  and  oral  work  that  gives  the 
pupils  an  audience  or  interested  readers. 

i 
EIGHTH    GRADE. 

The  second  book  of  the  "Modern  English"  series  should  be  com- 
pleted this  year.  As  in  the  seventh  grade,  scatter  the  exercises  in 
Part  Three  throughout  the  year.  Limit  the  grammar  study  to  two 
days  a  week,  following  the  plan  used  in  the  seventh  grade. 

Cut  down  the  technical  grammar  to  the  minimun.  The  following 
may  be  omitted  :  Chaps.  54,  55,  56,  59,  60;  Ex.  133 ;  Par.  240;  Chaps. 
66,  76;  Exs.  147,  148;  Chaps.  81  to  86;  Chaps.  91  to  95;  Chaps  98  to 
100;  Chaps.  102  to  104;  Chap.  114;  Chap.  120  to  124;  Chap.  126; 
Chaps.  128  to  130;  Par.  487;  Exs.  236,  237;  Chaps.  136  to  138;  Ex. 
253 ;  Chap.  142  ;  Chaps.  144  to  145 ;  Chap.  148.  Omit  all  other  chap- 
ters and  sections  that  do  not  have  direct  connection  with  speaking 
and  writing.  Condense  long  exercises  and  make  all  grammar  work 
practical. 

Continue  the  oral  composition  work  and  the  writing  of  paragraphs 
and  compositions.  Train  the  pupils  to  consult  encyclopedias  and 
reference  books  to  get  material.  Train  them  to  organize  material, 
make  notes  and  outlines,  and  speak  and  write  clearly,  confidently,  and 
intelligently.  Assign  subjects  that  lead  to  thinking  but  that  are 
within  the  children's  ability. 

Continue  the  literary  society  work  and  everything  else  that  leads 
the  children  to  express  themselves  before  an  audience  or  for  readers. 
Continue  letter  writing.  Eemember  that  after  they  leave*  school,  about 
the  only  writing  the  children  are  called  upon  to  do  is  the  writing  of 
letters;  therefore  make  sure  that  before  they  leave  school  they  can 
write  chatty,  interesting  friendly  letters,  and  straight-forward,  clear, 
accurate  business  letters. 


82 

Review  and  practice  all  the  formal  elements :  punctuation,  spelling, 
paragraphing,  etc.  In  all  the  classes  and  throughout  the  day  keep 
watch  on  the  children's  language.,  endeavoring  to  break  up  all  bad 
habits  of  speech  and  especially  to  arouse  in  the  children  a  desire  to 
speak  well.  Teach  the  children  to  imitate  intelligently  the  good  qual- 
ities in  the  literature  they  read.  You  do  not  want  to  make  authors  of 
your  children,  but  you  should  train  them  to  borrow  from  the  writing 
of  authors  those  qualities  that  will  make  their  own  work  better. 


WRITING 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

The  teacher  should  realize  that  writing  is  a  subject  of  great  impor- 
tance. It  should  receive  a  prominent  place,  and  a  due  amount  of  time 
both  on  the  daily  program,  and  in  the  teacher's  thought  and  prepara- 
tion. 

1.  There  are  many  teachers  who  are  already  skillful  and  success- 
ful teachers  of  writing.     It  is  not  expected  or  intended  that  such 
teachers  should  throw  away  the  plans  and  systems  that  they  have  been 
using  and  follow  the  principles,  methods,  and  devices  herein  suggest- 
ed.   Some  good  teachers  can  get  help  from  a  study  and  application  of 
this  course  in  writing;  but  it  is  devised  especially  for  those  who  have 
not  yet  become  successful. 

2.  In  any  study  of  writing  there  are  two  distinct  phases  or  things 
to  be  considered,  and  it  will  greatly  help  clearness  in  studying  and 

discussing  the  subject  if  these  are  given  different  names.  First f  there 
is  the  act  or  process,  the  set  of  motions  we  go  through :  Second,  there 
is  the  result  of  these  movements,  or  the  product.  In  this  discussion, 
therefore,  bear  in  mind  the  following  definitions : 

By  PENMANSHIP  we  mean  the  process  or  art  of  writing : 

By  HANDWRITING  we  mean  the  product  that  results  from  the 
process. 

Qualities  of  Good  Handwriting. 

1.  Legibility. .  The  first  quality  of  any  handwriting  is  that  it  can 
be  read.  Some  of  the  things  that  affect  legibility  are  these : 

a.  Good  Forms:     The  letters  should  follow  good  forms.     Some 
forms  are  naturally  more  easily  read  than  others. 

b.  Accepted  Forms:     The  letters  should  follow  accepted  forms. 
Naturally  we  can  more  easily  read  forms  we  are  accustomed  to.    More- 
over, no  teacher  has  a  right  to  teach  new  and  unusual  forms  of  the 
English  letters.     Since  English  is  so  nearly  a  world  language,  it  is 
highly  important  that  the  forms  of  the  letters  should  be  fixed  and 
permanent  so  as  to  be  recognized  all  over  the  world. 


84 

c.  Connections  and  Spacing  should  be  properly  made. 

d.  The  slant  should  not  be  over  70°.    It  has  been  proven  that  the 
more  nearly  vertical  the  writing  is  the  more  easily  read  it  is. 

2.  Uniformity  and  Regularity.     All  letters  are  made  of  a  few 
single  elements,  such  as  straight  lines,  curves,  etc.    If  these  elements 
are  always  made  the  same,  with  reference  to  position,  length,  slant, 
form,  connections  etc.,  the  result  will  be  uniform  and  regular  hand- 
writing.    Besides  the   appearance,   there   are   other  reasons   why   a 
uniform  handwriting  is  desirable,  such  as  ambiguities  in  legal  docu- 
ments. 

3.  Beauty.     Beauty  is  its  own  reward.     Handwriting  should  pos- 
sess this  quality.    The  qualities  mentioned  above  contribute  somewhat 
to  it,  but  beautiful  forms  when  seen,  should  be  imitated  and  beautiful 
ideas  of  letters  built  up  in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

Qualities  of  Penmanship. 

.Some  of  the  qualities  at  which  the  teacher  should  aim,  in  order  of 
their  importance,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Ease.     It  ought  to  be  easy  for  any  one  to  write.    Correct  posi- 
tion, correct  movement,  correct  habits  as  to  slant,  height,  spacing, 
connections,  etc.,  with  proper  forms  in  the  hiind,  will  result  in  easy 
writing.     A  forearm  movement  seems  generally  Acknowledged  to  be 
the  easiest  movement;  and  a  slant  of  about  70  degrees  seems  to  be 
the  easiest  slant. 

2.  Speed.     For  obvious  reasons  any  one  ought  to  be  able  to  write 
with  a  fair  degree  of  speed.    Practice,  properly  carried  out,  is  the  only 
road  to  speed. 

3.  Pleasure.     It  ought  to  be  a  pleasure  to  write,  or  at  least  not 
unpleasant.    Many  a  man  has  lost  much,  in  a  business  way,  because 
writing  was  disagreeable  to  him.    If  writing  is  distasteful  it  encour- 
ages procrastination  and  delay  in  business  matters. 

4.  Automatism    is   writing   automatically   and   without   thought. 
The  ultimate  end  as  to  penmanship,  ought  to  be  that  the  student  will 
become  so  skillful  that  he  writes    without  thought,  so  far  as  the  mere 
writing  is  concerned,  and  is  free  to  give  all  his  mental  effort  to  the 
ideas  he  is  trying  to  express. 

Aim  of  the  School. 

What  is  then  the  definite  aim  of  the  school?  It  is  to  teach  the 
child  to  write  a  legible,  uniform  and  beautiful  handwriting,  to  write 
with  pleasure,  and  with  such  ease  and  speed  that  he  will  finally  write 
automatical  ly. 


85 

Aim  of  the  Teacher. 

What  is  the  aim  of  the  teacher?  It  is  to  understand  the  general 
problem  of  what  good  penmanship  and  good  handwriting  means, 
and  to  know  each  day  what  thing  must  be  done  that  day  to  assist  the 
child  to  gain  the  small  bit  of  power  and  skill  which  will  gradually 
enable  him  to  reach  the  proficiency  at  which  the  school  aims. 

Practice. 

Aristotle  said :  "We  learn  to  do  by  doing  that  which  we  wish  to  do 
when  we  have  learned  it ;  we  become  builders  by  building,  and  harpers 
by  harping.  So,  by  doing  just  acts  we  become  just,  and  by  doing 
acts  of  temperance  and  courage  we  become  temperate  and  coura- 
geous/' If  we  learn  to  do  by  doing  it  is  evident  that  the  first  duty  of 
the  teacher  is  to  have  the  child  to  do,  which  is,  in  this  case,  to  write. 
Practice  must  not  be  neglected. 

But  many  who  build  are  not  good  builders,  and  many  who  play  the 
harp  are  not  good  harpers.  So  there  must  be  some  things  connected 
with  practice  that  should  be  considered. 

Physical  Conditions  of  Right  Practice. 

a.  The  general  law  of  physical  development  is  that  the  larger  and 
more  general  muscles  come  under  control  of  the  will  earlier  in  life 
than, the  smaller  and  finer  muscles.    For  instance,  the  larger  muscles 
of  the  arm  can  be  controlled  long  before  the  muscles  of  the  fingers. 
This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  smaller  children  should  use  larger 
forms  in  handwriting,  larger  things  to  write  with,  and  freer  move- 
ments of  larger  muscles. 

b.  When  we  consider  that  the  whole  body  must  be  kept  steady  for 
good  penmanship,  so  that  many  body  muscles  are  concerned  besides 
those  of  the  arm  and  fingers,  we  see  that  a  very  large  number  of 
muscles  are  in  use  in  writing,  the  number  being  estimated  as  high  as 
five  hundred.  For  these  and  other  reasons  the  writing  period  should 
never  come  when  the  person  is  physically  fatigued,  or  excited,  or  when 
muscular  control  is  in  any  way  affected.  Just  after  recess,  or  late  in  the 
day  is  not  a  good  time  for  the  writing  period.     Temperature  condi- 
tions  ought  also  to   be   good  for  these  markedly   affect  muscular 
control. 

c.  The  copy  should  be  near  the  child.    For  that  reason  when  the 
child  is  writing  on  his  desk,  a  copy  on  a  slip  of  paper  on  the  desk  is 
better  than  a  blackboard  copy.     It  is  also  better  for  other  reasons. 
Blackboard  writing  itself  is  a  useful  exercise,  and  the  best  copy  for 
it  is  blackboard  copy. 


86 
Laws  of  Habit  Affecting  Practice. 

When  several  movements  have  to  be  performed  in  harmony  with 
one  another  we  call  them  co-ordinated  movements.  Writing  is  a 
good  example  of  such  a  set  of  movements.  The  general  law  of  skill 
in  co-ordinated  movements  is  that  ease  and  accuracy  or  rapidity  and 
accuracy,  in  the  performance  of  a  set  of  such  movements,  result  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  repetitions  under  right  conditions.  In 
the  main  these  conditions  are  as  follows: 

a.  Ideal  Forms.     The  mind  should  have  a  clear  idea  or  ideal  of  the 
proper  form.     Unless  this  is  true,  the  efforts  have  no  guidance  and 
amount  to  nothing. 

b.  Close  Attention.     The  repetitions  should  be  made  with  strong 
attention.    Practice  when  the  attention  is  not  strongly  fixed  amounts 
to  little.     So  there  should  be  nothing  to  distract  the  attention  at  the 
writing  period. 

c.  Proper  Intervals  of  Time.     The  repetition   should  be  made 
at  proper  intervals.     The  effect  of  practice  seems  to  "set"  in  the 
mind  after  the  practice  is  stopped.    Fifteen  minutes  practice  for  four 
days  each  will  probably  result  in  much  more  progress  than  sixty  con- 
secutive minutes  one  day. 

d.  A  Pleasurable  Exercise.  The  repetitions  should  be  accompanied 
with  pleasure.    We  easily  learn  to  do  what  we  like  to  do.    Therefore, 
the  teacher  should  take  pains  that  the  writing  period  is  an  enjoyable 
time. 

e.  Correct  Movements.     The  repetitions  should  be  rightly  gone 
through  with  each  time.     It  is  only  the  correct  actions  or  movements 
that  count.    The  incorrect  action  is  not  only  a  loss  of  time,  but  it  is 
also  setting  up  a  wrong  habit  which  more  time  will  be  needed  to  over- 
come. 

f.  Uniform  Speed.     In  general,  within  reasonable  limits,  speed 
and  accuracy  develop  together.    At  a  fair  speed,  work  is  likely  to  be 
more  accurate;  at  a  very  low  or  very  high  speed,  work  is  likely  to  be 
less  accurate. 

g.  Patience.  •  The  teacher  should  especially  note  this  principle, 
for  often  it  will  save  him  from  discouragement.     Speed  and  accuracy 
and  skill  do  not  develop  regularly,  even  with,  regular  practice.   There 
are  periods  of  increased  and  decreased  progress,  and  periods  in  which 
practically  no  progress  is  observable,  although  it  is  doubtless  taking 
place. 


87 
The  Stages  of  Skill  in  Penmanship. 

Three  distinct  and  well  marked  stages  may  be  noted  in  learning  to 
write.  The  teacher  should  have  these  clearly  in  mind. 

a.  Printing  Stage.     What  may  be  called  the  stage  of  printing, 
when  the  whole  movement  is  guided  by  the  eye,  and  practically  the 
whole  attention  is  taken  in  controlling  the  movement. 

b.  Eye  Directed  Stage.     The  second  stage,  when  the  writing  is 
mostly  guided  by  the  muscle  sense,  and  the  eye  is  not  much  used  for 
the  formation  of  the  letters,  but  merely  for  general  supervision  of  the 
movement,  to  keep  the  writing  straight  on  the  line,  etc.    This  is  the 
stage  most  people  reach. 

c.  Automatic  Stage.     The  automatic  stage,  when  the  writing  is 
entirely  unconscious  and  automatic,  the  entire  thought  being  given  to 
composition  of  the  matter  written. 

Generalization . 

In  the  first  two  or  three  grades  the  teacher  is  concerned  with  the 
first  of  these  stages;  in  the  intermediate  grades,  with  the  second; 
and  in  the  upper  grades,  with  the  last.  The  child's  writing 
outside  of  the  practice  time  should  contribute  a  great  deal 
towards  his  reaching  the  final  stage.  Therefore,  all  written  work 
should  receive  the  teacher's  special  attention.  It  should  be  given  with 
the  request  that  it  be  written  according  to  conditions  given  for  regu- 
lar writing  practice,  and  not  so  much  written  work  should  be  given  as 
would  make  the  child  neglect  these  conditions  in  his  haste  to  get  it 
done. 

The  Use  of  the  Copy  Book. 

The  copy  book  should  be  used  as  a  writing  dictionary.  At 
a  given  lesson  the  pupil  should  be  allowed  to  copy  one  line 
of  the  copy  in  the  book.  The  teacher  should  then  point  out 
errors  and  faults  in  this  copy.  The  child  should  next  make 
several  copies  on  other  paper,  and  finally  one  more  copy  below  the 
first  one  for  the  lesson  made  in  the  book.  He  should  then  carefully 
compare  this  with  the  first  one,  to  note  improvement.  If  there  are 
still  faults,  the  same  process  should  be  repeated.  All  practices  for 
correction-  of  faults  should  be  outside  the  book.  The  copy-book  is  for 
reference  for  correct  letter  forms,  just  as  the  dictionary  is  for 
reference  for  correct  spelling  and  pronunciation  forms. 


8S 

Proper  Pen-Holding. 

In  Clark's  "Public  School  Penmanship"  the  following  seven  points 
are  given  for  correct  holding  of  the  pen  or  pencil.  The  pen  should 
be  held  between  the  first  and  second  fingers  and  the  thumb. 

1.  It  should  cross  the  second  finger  at  the  corner  of  the  nail. 

2.  It  should  cross  the  first  finger  close  to  the  middle  joint. 

3.  The  thumb  should  bend  outward  at  its  first  joint,  and  the  end 
of  it  should  touch  the  penholder  opposite  the  first  joint  of  the  first 
finger. 

4.  The  forearm  should  rest  lightly  on  its  muscle,  as  has  been 
shown  in  describing  the  body  position. 

5.  The  wrist  should  be  raised  slightly  above  the  desk. 

6.  The  hand  should  rest  on  the  tips  of  the  third  and  fourth  finger 
nails. 

7.  The  top  of  the  pen-holder  should  point  in  a  line  up  the  forearm 
and  over  the  elbow,  between  the  elbow  and  the  shoulder. 

How  To  Teach  Proper  Pen-Holding. 

These  seven  points  should  be  taught  one  at  a  time,  but  not  neces- 
sarily in  the  order  given.  They  should  be  taught  in  the  order  of  their 
importance.  Proper  exercises  should  be  given  to  assist  in  the  detailed 
development  of  the  study. 

The  upright  position  of  the  hand  is  of  first  importance.  Some- 
times it  is  well  to  put  a  long  thin  stick,  such  as  a  ruler,  into  the  pupil's 
hand  in  the  same  position  as  a  pen-holder  should  be,  and  show  him  that 
this  should  extend  directly  over  the  shoulder.  Then  have  him  lift  his 
arm  vertically  over  the  elbow,  till  the  ruler  comes  directly  and  verti- 
cally over  the  shoulder.  Have  him  repeat  this  exercise  briskly  for 
ten  or  fifteen  seconds. 

Have  the  child  place  the  hand  at  the  left  edge  of  the  paper,  move 
it  half  way  across  the  page,  meanwhile  paying  full  attention  to  the 
position  of  the  hand — not  the  sheet — then  lift  his  hand  on  the  elbow 
in  exactly  the  position  it  was,  and  then  if  the  pen  does  not  point 
directly  over  the  shoulder  it  shows  that  the  hand  has  rolled  over  out 
of  position  while  he  wrote  the  line. 

Next  in  order  of  importance  is  the  third  and  fourth  finger  nail 
rest.  Have  the  pupil  put  his  hand  flat  on  the  desk,  close  all  of  the 
fingers  so  that  all  of  the  four  finger  nails  rest  on  the  desk,  then  extend 
the  first  and  second  fingers  as  though  holding  the  pen. 

The  elevation  of  the  wrist  should  come  next.  If  when  his  hand 
is  properly  supported  on  the  two  finger  nails  the  wrist  tends  to  drop, 


89 

have  him  hold  the  muscle  of  the  arm  properly  on  the  desk  and  prac- 
tice raising  and  dropping  the  wrist. 

For  the  crossing  point  of  the  pen-holder  against  the  second  finger 
nail,  ask  the  pupil  to  hold  his  pen  correctly  between  the  first  finger 
and  the  thumb.  Then  ask  him  to  raise  his  first  finger  from  the  pen- 
holder, and  to  notice  the  slight  pressure  of  the  thumb  against  the  cor- 
ner of  the  second  finger  nail. 

In  order  to  correct  a  too  curved  position  of  the  first  finger  show 
that  it  rests  on  the  pen-holder  from  the  middle  joint  to  the  end.  If 
necessary,  fasten  a  small  rubber  band  around  the  pen-holder  and 
finger,  between  the  first  joint  and  end. 

In  order  to  correct  undue  curvature  of  the  first  two  fingers  and 
thumb  see  to  it  that  the  pen  point  is  at  least  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  below  the  end  of  the  second  finger. 

Both  pencil  and  pen-holder  are  held  in  the  same  manner.  Give 
drills  one  time  with  the  pen-holder,  and  then  with  the  pencil. 

Useful  Gymnastic  Exercises. 

To  assist  in  developing  control  of  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  arm, 
try  the  following: 

1st.  Place  hands  palms  downward  lightly  on  the  desk,  arms 
resting  on  desk,  only  fleshy  part  of  arm  near  the  elbow  touching  or 
resting  on  desk.  No  other  part  of  arm  should  touch  desk,  except  part 
near  elbow,  and  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  which  serve  as  runners 
or  glides  when  moving  from  letter  to  letter  or  word  to  word. 

2nd.     Lift  hands  high  as  head. 

3rd.  Wave  hands  up  and  down,  as  in  waving  good-by  to  someone, 
or  move  fingers  and  hands  as  birds  fly. 

4th.     Bring  hands  to  desk. 

5th.  Drop  hands  to  side  of  body — let  them  hang  limp  near  end 
of  seat.  Eepeat  these  arm  and  hand  manipulations  briefly  each  writ- 
ing period  at  beginning  of  year  or  term,  but  gradually  lessen  time 
given  to  each.  Eeview  whenever  necessary.  Children  like  to  show 
how  they  say  good-by  to  father,  mother,  or  baby,  or  how  the  birds 
fly,  by  waving  their  hands.  As  a  rule  children  naturally  and  easily 
show  how  birds  fly.  A  child  waves  good-by  naturally;  handling  of 
pencil  or  pen  should  be  as  natural  and  will  be,  when  the  concept  ia 
as  clear  and  interest  is  as  near.  Some  teachers  give  signals,  thus : 

Position  (which  means  feet  on  floor,  hands  resting  on  desk). 

Lift  hands  (which  means  hands  in  air  about  as  high  as  head) . 


90 

Show  how  birds  fly,  or  wave  good  by. 
Bring  hands  down  on  desk. 
Drop  hands  side  of  body. 

Reasons  for  Good  Position. 

It  may  help  the  teacher  to  secure  a  good  seat-work  position, 
if  the  child  himself  understands  the  reason  why  the  teacher 
insists  on  it.  The  child  ought  certainly  to  understand  that 
these  reasons  are  for  his  welfare,  and  not  for  some  mere 
whim  of  the  teacher.  Three  good  reasons  for  proper  position  in  writ- 
ing are: 

a.  To  preserve  the  eyesight.    A  poor  position  causes  bad  eyesight. 

b.  To  preserve  good  health.     A  bent-over  position  cramps   and 
restricts  the  circulation  and  respiration,  which  is  bound  to  affect  the 
health  adversely. 

c.  To  secure  convenience  in  penmanship.     The  following  sugges- 
tions are  offered :  the  teacher  should  explain  these  artfully  to  the 
children  and  should  see  that  they  have  the  proper  position  in  all  school 
work. 

1.  Position  for  Seat-Work  in  Penmanship.     The  body  should  be 
erect,  facing  front,  with  feet  flat  on  -floor.     Shoulders  should  be  back 
with  head  erect.    Hold  the  right  arm  extended  from  elbow,  and  rest- 
ing on  large  muscle  of  forearm.     Let  left  arm  rest  on  the  desk  to 
steady  the  paper,  which  should  lie  at  a  slightly  oblique  angle  with  the 
edge  of  the  desk.    It  would  be  well  to  have  a  line  marked  across  the 
desk  to  show  position  of  paper. 

2.  Position  for  Blackboard  Writing.    Teach  proper  position  at  the 
blackboard  the  first  thing.    Pupils  should  stand  a  little  distance  away 
from  the  board,  the  line  of  the  body  not  quite  parallel  with  it.     The 
space  of  the  blackboard  written  on  should  have  its  center  directly 
opposite  the  right  shoulder. 

Form  and  Movement. 

These  are  somewhat  related,  but  the  hand-writing  of  any 
person,  so  far  as  its  appearance  goes,  depends  largely  upon 
the  forms  of  the  letters  which  the  person  has  in  his  mind.  His 
skill  as  a  penman  is  largely  a  matter  of  his  muscular  control  in  exe- 
cuting these  forms.  Thus  in  a  general  way  we  might  say  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  distinctions  made  herein:  Form  pertains  more  to  hand- 
writing while  movement  pertains  to  penmanship.  In  actual  practice, 
however,  these  cannot  always  be  separated. 


91 

It  will  tend  to  better  teaching,  however,  if  the  teacher  recog- 
nizes and  provides  for  these  two  phases  of  the  question. 

Attention  ought  to  be  directed  towards  a  good  form  before  any 
letters  either  in  words  or  without  words,  are  practiced.  Of  course, 
the  copy-book  gives  these  forms;  however,  the  teacher  should  usually 
at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  call  attention  to  any  special  points  that 
are  worthy  of  notice.  By  the  very  nature  of  the  mind,  the  teacher 
ought  to  see  more  in  a  given  copy  than  the  child  would,  embracing 
many  such  points  as  the  connection  of  letters,  the  height,  slant, 
amount  of  curvature  of  certain  parts,  etc. 

Every  copy-book  lesson  should  be  preceded  by  general  movement 
exercises  in  making  ovals,  loops,  and  many  such  designs.  Of  course, 
the  lesson  itself  should  be  carried  on  with  proper  movement  in  mak- 
ing the  copy  that  constitutes  the  set  exercise  for  the  tfay. 

Permanent  Model. 

The  following  suggestion  is  of  first  importance.  If  there  is 
ample  blackboard  room  the  teacher  should  keep  a  set  of  model 
letters  on  the  board  for  reference.  If  , blackboard  space  is  lack- 
ing, a  set  of  these  in  printed  form  can  be  made  and  tacked  upon  the 
Avail  in  a  position  where  the  pupils  can  easily  see  them.  This  will 
serve  as  a  model  for  correct  forms  for  the  children  in  writing  at  all 
times  in  other  work ;  also,  whenever  the  teacher  observes  a  letter  poorly 
formed,  she  can  call  attention  to  the  properly  formed  letter  in  the 
permanent  model  set,  to  secure  the  correction  of  error. 

Grading. 

Grading  furnishes  the  child  an  effective  stimulus  and  motive. 
The  grading  of  writing,  however,  has  usually  been  so  much  a 
matter  of  personal  opinion  that  it  was  not  very  practicable. 
The  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  however,  has  worked  out  a  definite 
scale  commonly  known  as  the  "Ayres"  scale  for  grading  hand-writing, 
which  is  perhaps  as  good  a  thing  as  has  yet  been  done  along  the  line 
of  offering  a  definite  basis  for  such  grading.  A  copy  of  this  scale 
can  be  secured  from  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  130  E.  22nd  St., 
New  York  City,  for  5  cents. 

Dr.  Edward  Thorndike  has  also  worked  out  a  scale,  copy  of  which 
is  to  be  found  in  "Teaching  the  Common  Branches,"  by  Dr.  Charters, 
which  is  on  the  State  Reading  Circle  Course  for  1914-15.  At  the 
beginning  of  each  term  each  pupil  ought  to  be  given  a  copy  to  make, 
which  shall  be  graded  and  filed  as  a  record  of  his  hand-writing.  At 
the  end  of  the  term,  if  not  every  month,  this  should  be  repeated,  a 


92 

copy  being  given  to  be  written,  graded  according  to  the  scale,  and  thus 
•definite  ideas  formed  as  to  the  advancement  of  the  individual  pupils. 

The  Alternation  and  Combination  of  Classes  in  Writing. 

In  one-room  schools  the  work  in  writing  can  be  very  successfully 
done  with-out  having  separate  classes  for  each  year.  It  is  thought 
that  the  following  combinations  can  be  easily  made: 

1st  grade  with  2nd  grade,  where  2nd  grade  is  small  or  not  well 
advanced. 

2nd  grade  with  3rd  grade  in  other  cases. 

4th  grade  with  5th  grade. 

6th,  7th  and  8th  grades. 

Thus  a  school  having  all  or  nearly  all  grades  might  not  have  more 
than  three  or  four  writing  classes. 

The  Pupil's  Interest  and  Enthusiasm. 

No  success  can  come  to  the  teacher  who  does  not  secure 
the  proper  interest  and  enthusiasm  on  the  pupil's  part.  The 
teacher  herself  should  exhibit  these  qualities,  for  they  are  con- 
tagious. She  should  preserve  and  exhibit  written  work.  Whea 
she  has  a  school  entertainment  or  even  visitors,  written  work 
should  be  on  exhibition.  Work  that  properly  exhibits  the  writ- 
ing of  the  child  should  be  taken  home  by  him.  Reward  pupils  who 
are  showing  improvement  by  having  a  little  honor  roll  on  the  black- 
board. Have  pupils  themselves  compare  and  select  good  writing  from 
their  class  work.  Encourage  friendly  rivalry  among  pupils.  Use 
the  Thorndike  or  Ayres  scale  for  determining  advancement  in  the 
quality  of  hand-writing,  and  use  timed  tests  in  writing  a  definite 
numbers  of  letters  or  words  for  improvement  in  speed.  Promise  that 
all  who  show  a  certain  amount  of  improvement  may  have  some  special 
privilege,  such  as  writing  a  valentine  on  Valentine  Day,  writing  invi- 
tations to  a  school  entertainment,  writing  letters  to  Santa  Claus,  etc. 

The  Left-Handed  Child. 

The  phenomena  of  right  and  lef^t-handedness  are  not  throughly 
well  understood  at  present,  although  there  are  various  theories 
on  the  subject.  Therefore  we  do  not  really  know  how  much 
a-  child's  writing  with  his  left  hand  may  be  related  to  all 
the  other  factors  in  his  physical  and  mental  make-up.  According  to 
our  best  knowledge  at  present  the  teacher  should  be  guided  by  the 
following  suggestions :  In  the  beginning  if  a  child  displays  a  tend- 


93 

eney  to  write  with  his  left  hand  the  teacher  should  make  a  moderate 
effort  to  train  him  to  use  his  right  hand  instead ;  however,  if  there  is 
any  marked  inability  to  gain  the  necessary  muscular  control,  it  would 
perhaps  be  better  to  allow  him  to  continue  with  the  left  hand.  In 
the  case  of  more  advanced  pupils,  in  whom  the  habit  has  already  be- 
come seated,  merely  try  to  train  them  to  be  good  writers  with  the- 
left  hand. 

For  full  discussion  of  the  subject  see:  Thompson's  Psychology  and 
Pedagogy  of  Handwriting. 

Books  that  are  recommend  to  teachers  of  writing: 

B.  D.  Berry  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  have  an  excellent  manual  to- 
accompany  their  systems  of  copy-books.  This  takes  up  the  writing 
by  grade,  and  by  illustrations,  explanations,  exercises,  gives  thorough 
exposition  of  the  methods  which  they  recommend  for  the  successful 
use  of  the  system.  They  will  supply  this  to  county  superintendents 
and  teachers  free  of  charge. 

Clark's  Public  School  Penmanship,  Ginn  &  Co.,  New  York.  This 
is  a  good  practical  book  covering  practically  all  of  the  teaching  of 
penmanship,  developing  the  principles  in  a  way  that  is  applicable  to- 
any  system. 

Thompson's  The  Psychology  of  Writing.  Warwick  &  York,  Balti- 
more, Md.  This  book,  while  not  attempting  to  give  any  detailed  sys- 
tem, goes  deeply  into  the  fundamental  principles  involved  in  the  psy- 
chology and  pedagogy  of  the  subject. 

Steadman's  Teacher's  Manual.  The  American  Book  Co.,  Cincin- 
nati, 0.  This  is  a  practical  manual,  and  while  it  is  especially  de- 
signed to  accompany  the  author's  own  system,  it  has  much  material 
and  discussions  of  general  value.  It  contains  an  outline  of  76  graded 
lessons  that  would  be  of  use  with  any  system. 

FIRST  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.  General:     The  work  of  the  first  year  is  mostly  concerned  with 
teaching  the  forms  of  the  letters,  and  getting  some  start  in  the  move- 
ment.    The  writing  is  in  part  very  closely  connect-ed  with  the  work 
in  reading,  for  the  child  has  to  be  taught  how  to  read  the  script  forms, 
as  well  as  how  to  make  them.     In  the  first  few  weeks  in  one-room 
schools  there  will  usually  not  be  much  time  for  any  writing  exercises 
that  are  riot  directly  connected  with  the  other  lessons. 

2.  Time :    The  teacher  should  devote  at  least  ten  minutes  per  day 
to  the  writing  of  the  first  year  class. 


94 

3.  Means  and  Materials:     Where   the   school  room    has    ample 
blackboard  space  much  of  the  work  of  the  first  lessons  can  be  well, 
perhaps  best,  done  at  the  blackboard.     This  is  not  only  a  useful  way 
of  beginning  the  work,  but  it  also  supplies  small  children  with  the 
necessary  rest  and  variety  in  physical  posture  and  position. 

Where  the  work  must  be  done  at  the  seats,  the  materials  will  be 
paper  and  large  pencils. 

Paper  ruled  about  3/4  of  an  inch,  single  ruling,  is  recommended, 
about  12x9,  or  10x8.  Cheap  printing  paper,  squares  torn  from  old 
newspapers  may  be  used  for  practice. 

The  following  pencils  are  commended : 

Dixon  Crucible  Co.,  Philadelphia,  beginner's  No.  308. 

American  Lead  Pencil  Co.,  New  York  City,  No.  81. 

E.  Faber,  New  York  City,  Elementary  No.  6370. 

The  Eagle  Pencil  Co.,  New  York  City,  No.  773,  or  Alpha  No.  245. 

Do  not  use  a  small,  hard  leaded  pencil. 

See  if  your  dealer  will  not  carry  these  in  stock. 

No  copy  need  be  used  this  year. 

4.  General  ISTotes  on  Method : 

a.  The  Publisher's  Manual.     The  B.  D.  Berry  Co.,  623  So.  Wa- 
bash   Ave.,    Chicago,   the   publishers   of   the   state   adopted  writing 
books,  have  an  excellent  manual  for  teachers.     This  manual  will  be 
furnished  to  teachers,  preferably  to  the  county  superintendent.     It  is 
recommended  that  teachers  secure  this  manual,  as  it  gives  a  carefully 
prepared  course  of  work  designed  to  go  with  their  copy  books. 

b.  Drill.     The  first  drill  should  be  on  oval  o?s  of  large  size,  the 
teacher    counting,    one-two-three,    or    saying     round-and-round-and- 
round.    The  child  loves  rhythm,  and  the  purpose  is  to  secure  rhythmi- 
cal motion.    Some  appropriate  little  songs  might  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Later  on  small  ovals  can  be  used  with  the  larger  ones,  and  can  be 
joined  to  the  letter  n. 

Slanting  up  and  down  strokes  can  be  used  following  this,  such  as 
/  /  /  /  /'/,  making  three  or  more  to  some  kind  of  rhythmical  count- 
ing. 

c.  Devices.     Rolling  the  Hoop.     Connected  ovals  may  be  made, 
to  a  count.     Teach  the  children  to  press  lightly  or  the  hoop  will  stop 
rolling. 

Jumping  the  Rope.  A  similar  series  of  ovals,  but  inverted,  may  be 
made.  The  children  may  count  with  the  teacher,  jump-jump-jump, 


95 

etc.,  or  sing  some  appropriate  little  song.     Let  the  accent  come  on 
the  downward  stroke,  as  if  the  rope  were  hitting  the  ground. 

Grapevine  Swing.     Horizontal  curves,  back  and  forth. 

The  Ticking  Clock,  or  Tick  Tock.  This  is  similar  to  the  swinging 
game,  but  the  horizontal  curves  do  not  run  over  the  top  of  each  other, 
but  a  little  drop  is  made  each  time. 

The  Humming  or  Buzzing  Bees.  Light  curves,  joined  by  a  long 
loop.  This  may  be  made  later  when  the  children  have  gained  more 
freedom  and  better  control  of  their  muscles. 

Skating.  Oblique  up  and  down  strokes,  joined  by  loops  at  bottom 
and  top. 

The  Sky  Rocket.  A  set  of  ovals,  growing  smaller  and  converging 
to  a  center,  ended  by  an  abrupt  upward  oblique  straight  stroke. 

5.  Form :     These    notes   might   suggest   the   idea   that   the    first 
year's  work  is  mostly  a  matter  of  movement,  but  such  is  by  no  means 
the  case.     The  teacher  should  constantly  try  to  develop  the  ideas  of 
form  in  the  pupils. 

It  is  necessarily  true  that  children  will  vary  greatly  in  the  forms 
they  learn  and  use  for  letters ;  but  it  is  thought  that  it  will  in  general 
be  well  for  the  teacher  to  use  the  forms  of  letters  given  in  the  adopted 
copy  books.  The  teaching  of  proper  forms  is  mostly  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual work  and  attention,  as  each  child  has  &  tendency  to  make  his 
own  errors  and  deviations  from  proper  forms.  These  should  be  shown 
hini  personally,  and  the  work  should  be  varied  individually  to  suit 
his  case.  Clark's  Public  School  Penmanship,  pages  71-74,  134-37, 
gives  a  good  treatment  in  detail  for  teaching  the  script. 

6.  Supervision  of  First  Grade  Writing :    It  is  strongly  urged  that 
first  grade  pupils  should  be  allowed  to  write  only  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  teacher.     ITnsupervised  writing  is  the  source  of  many 
faults  which  cost  a  vast  amount  of  effort  to  overcome. 

For  seat  work,  cutting  out  and  pasting  pictures,  word  and  sentence 
building  with  alphabet  or  word  cards,  and  many  forms  of  activity 
may  be  correlated  with  other  work  at  this  time,  and  many  of  these 
develop  manual  skill  that  will  in  turn  contribute  directly  to  the 
writing. 

7.  Position :     For  both  board  and  seat  writing  the  proper  positions 
should  be  carefully  taught  before  attempting  any  work.     (See  General 
Discussion.) 

Order  of  Teaching  Script:     Clark's  Public   School    Penmanship 


96 

gives  a  carefully  worked  out  order  of  teaching  the  various  letters  and 
words  for  the  primary  grades.  (See  books  recommended  under  Gen- 
eral Discussion.) 

The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  invent  or  find  some  scheme  for  a 
procedure  in  this  matter,  for  the  letters  should  proceed  according  to 
some  definite  plan.  There  is  a  natural  order  which  greatly  facilitates 
the  child's  progress.  In  general,  any  particular  letter  is  similar  in 
form  to  others,  and  this  suggests  natural  series  and  groupings. 

9.  Promotion  Standards :  At  the  close  of  the  first  year  the  pupil 
should  be  able: 

a.  To  stand  properly  at  board  and  write  on  correct  slant. 

b.  To  sit  properly  at  desk. 

c.  To  place  the  paper  on  his  desk  properly. 

d.  To  hold  the  hand  upright  while  writing. 

e.  To  write  letters  and  words  with  proper  movement  of  forearm. 

f.  To  write  legibly  on  single  lined  paper. 

g.  To  make  script  letters  a  little  smaller  than  he  made  at  the 
first  of  the  year. 

SECOND  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Time:    The  pupils  of  the  second  grade  should  receive  at  least 
ten  minutes  time  per  day.     In  some  instances  this  can  be  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  work  of  the  first  year  class,  in  other  cases  with 
the  third  year  class. 

2.  Means  and  Materials:     The  pupils  of  this  grade  should  use 
large,  soft  pencils,  and  paper  during  the  first  part  of  the  year,  and 
do  blackboard  work  during  all  of  it.     During  the  last  half  of  the 
year  they  may  use  the  copy  book,  and  pen  and  ink.    Use  copy  book 
No.  1. 

3.  Purpose  and  Aim :    In  general  these  should  be  as  follows : 

a.  Fixation  of  proper  forms  in  the  mind. 

b.  The  gaining  of  an  increase  in  free  movement  through  drills 
on  exercises  and  letter  forms. 

c.  The  increase  of  the  child's  interest  in  writing. 

4.  First  Steps :     Review  various    exercises    suggested    for    first 
grade.     Spend  at  least  a  month  on  this.    Begin  with  blackboard  exer- 
cises, and  with  unruled  paper  for. seat  work.     When  ruled  paper  is 
used,  it  should  be  ruled  somewhat  closer  than  for  first  year  work. 
The  width  shown  in  the  No.  1  copy  book  is  very  good. 

5.  Pen  and  Ink:     If  the  use  of  pen  and  ink  is  begun -here,  the 


97 

child  should  be  taught  several  things  that  are  of  practical  importance. 

a.  The  use  of  a  blotter.     Show  him  how  to  lay  the  blotter  care- 
fully on  the  inked  paper,  to  press  it  gently,  and  to  lift  it  squarely 
from  the  surface,  instead  of  sliding  it  on  or  off  the  paper. 

b.  To  dip  the  pen  carefully  into  the  ink.     The  pen  should  be 
dipped  rather  slowly  into  the  ink,  about  to  the  depth  of  the  top  of  the 
"eye,"  and  removed  slowly.  This  will  prevent  the  ink  from  dropping 
from  the  pen.  A  new  pen  point  has  some  oil  on  it  to  prevent  rusting,, 
and  this  should  always  be  carefully  wiped  off. 

c.  The  kind  of  pen-holder  to  use.     It  should  be  large  at  the  base,, 
and  tipped  with  cork,  rubber,  etc.,  not  metal. 

d.  To  make  and  use  some  proper  sort  of  pen-wiper,  and  to  wipe 
the  pen  dry  when  stopping  the  use  of  it.    Several  folds  of  cloth  sewed 
together  at  one  edge  is  very  satisfactory. 

6.  Distributing  the  Work  in  the  Copy  Book:     When  the  copy 
book  is  begun  the  teacher  should  count  the  number  of  pages  of  copy, 
then  plan  the  work  of  the  year  so  as  to  allow  the  proper  number  of 
days  for  each  page.     (See  General  Discussion,  on  the  Use  of  the 
Copy  Book.) 

7.  The  Penmanship  Lesson :    Pass  and  collect  materials  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner,  planned  so  as  to  economize  time.     Give  the  little 
relaxation  drill  suggested  in  the  General  Discussion.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  lesson  have  all  pupils  take  proper  position,  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  teacher.  In  exercises  be  sure  to  count  or  in  some  way  indi- 
cate the  rhythm,  so  as  to  keep  the  proper  speed.  Use  the  blackboard  to* 
show  how  to  overcome  general  or  class  faults;  go  to  each  pupil  indi- 
vidually to  overcome  individual  faults.     Instruct  more  by  showing 
than  by  telling.     Strive  to  arouse  enthusiasm  by  means  suggested  in 
General  Discussion. 

8.  Improvement  and  Promotion  Standards :    At  stated  times  dur- 
ing the  year  apply  the  Ayres  or  Thorndike  scales,  for  testing  improve- 
ment in  form  and  legibility  of  handwriting.     In  this  grade  pupils 
may  not  advance  many  steps  in  the  scales,  but  it  gives  them  a  definite 
end  to  work  towards. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  about  the  following  should  have  been  accom- 
plished.    The  pupil  should  have  acquired: 

a.  Proper  position  for  writing  at  board  or  desk. 

b.  Knowledge  of  proper  position  of  paper  on  desk. 

c.  The  habit  of  holding  pen  or  pencil  properly,  involving  the-  up- 
right position  of  the  hand,  the  third  and  fourth  finger-nail  rest,  the 
elevated  wrist. 


98 

d.  More  uniformity  in  his  script. 

e.  Smaller  script. 

f .  Pair  use  of  fore-arm  movement. 

THIRD  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Time :    At  least  ten  minutes,  preferably  twenty,  throughout  the 
year.    In  one-room  schools  with  many  grades  this  grade  can  be  com- 
bined with  either  the  second  grade  or  the  fourth.     (See  General  Dis- 
cussion.) 

2.  Means  and  Materials:     Practice  paper,  pencil,  pen  and  ink, 
blackboard.     Ruling  of  paper  should  be  a  little  closer,  and  pencils 
should  be  soft,  but  may  be  smaller  than  for  second  grade. 

3.  Purpose  and  Aim:     Improvement  in  form,  increase  in  speed 
and  freedom  of  movement,  maintenance  of  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
This  year  should  specialize  on  the  study  of  the  letter  forms.     (See 
Clark,  pages  31-74,  for  detailed  instruction  for  teaching  script;  also 
pages  134-137.) 

4.  First  Month :    Time  spent  on  review  and  practice  exercises  on 
blackboard,  and  with  paper  and  pencil.     See  first  and  second  grade 
detail.    Give  exercises  on  blackboard  with  the  class  working  in  unison 
to  teacher's  count,  and  give  similar  drills  on  large  unruled  sheets  of 
paper,  reproducing  forms  and  exercises  of  previous  years.     Note  the 
words  and  letters  used  in  the  copy  book,  however,  and  let  these  pre- 
liminary exercises  be  directed  towards  them.     Spend  some  days  in 
practice  drill  on  the  various  points  relating  to  position  at  board  or 
seat,  and  position  of  paper,  etc. 

5.  The  Copy  Book:     Adopted  Book  No.  2.     Read  General  Dis- 
cussion,   on    use    of    the    copy    book.     In    this    year    a    detailed 
study  of  the  letters  should  be  emphasized,  so  that  the  pupil  will 
build  up  a  definite  idea  of  the  proper  form.    Use  the  copy  book,  also 
the    model    series     (See    General    Discussion)     for    this    purpose. 
Count  the  pages  in   the  copy  book,   and  make   some   estimate   of 
the  number  of  days  you  can  allow  to  each  page.    Begin  the  use  of  the 
book  the  second  month.    It  would  be  better  not  to  have  pupils  bring 
their  pen  and  ink  to  school  till  this  time,  so  that  they  will  be  fresh 
and  in  good  condition  for  beginning  the  work.     Teach  dipping  the 
pen,  blotting,  wiping  pen,  etc. 

6.  The  penmanship  lesson :    See  Grade  1,  Paragraph  7. 

7.  Improvement  and  Promotion   Standards:  See   Paragraph   8, 
Grade  1.  Pupils  should  during  the  year  show  much  improvement  as 


99 

tested  by  scales,  and  in  timed  tests  in  penmanship.  Before  promotion 
the  pupils  should  have  acquired  the  following: 

a.  The  habit  of  proper  position  of  body,  arm/ hand,  pen  and  paper. 

b.  Better  script,  as  to  form,  size,  etc. 

c.  The  habit  of  applying  these  things  in  writing  at  other  than  the 
writing  time. 

d.  More  definite  knowledge  of  and  ability  to  compare  letter  forms. 

e.  A  fairly  good  use  of  the  forearm  movement. 

f.  Some  skill  in  use  of  pen  and  ink. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.  Time:     From  ten  to  twenty  minutes.     (As  much  as  possible 
each  day  throughout  the  year.)     This  year's  class  may  be  combined 
with  that  of  some  other  year. 

2.  Means  and  Materials:     Copy  Book  No.  3,  otherwise  same  as 
last  year. 

3.  Purpose :     Continuation  of  fixation  of  proper  forms.     Speciali- 
zation in  improvement  in  movement. 

4.  First  Month :    Review  of  all  points  pertaining  to  position.    Ex- 
ercises and  drills  with  blackboard,  pencil  and  paper,  physical  move- 
ments and  drills  without  anything  in  hand,  etc.     Apply  carefully 
Clark's  Public  School  Penmanship,  giving  a  detailed  study  of  move- 
ment, forms  and  development,  pages  75-96. 

5.  The  Copy  Book:     Begin  with  the  second  month.     Count  the 
number  of  pages  so  as  to  allot  the  proper  amount  of  time  to  each 
lesson.    Use  about  half  of  the  time  for  movement  drills,  and  half  of 
the  time  for  form  Work,  the  latter  based  on  the  forms  of  script  found 
in  the  copy  book.    Use  the  copy  book  for  a  writing  dictionary,  in  the 
manner   suggested    in    General    Discussion.      Although    this    is    the 
year   for   giving   especial    attention   to   the  improvement   in    move- 
ment, the  application  of  this  movement  to  the  writing  will  not  all 
be  accomplished  this  year.    This  will  take  several  years. 

6.  Reference:     General  Discussion,  and  First  Year,  Paragraph  7. 

7.  Improvement  and  Promotion    Standards:      Collect   specimens 
several  times  during  the  year,  to  which  apply  the  Thorndike  or  Ayres 
scales.     Have  timed  rapidity  tests  for  noting  improvement  in  move- 
ment and  speed. 

8.  Promotion  Standards:     Before    promotion   the   pupil    should 
show  improvement  in  all  of  the  five  points  mentioned  in  third  year 
-standard.     In  addition,  he  should  have: 


100 

a.  A  growing  knowledge  of  what  is  meant  by  movement,  the  things 
that  go  to  make  it  up,  and  its  uses  and  advantages. 

b.  Increased  pleasure  and  pride  in  his  hand-writing  and  penman- 
ship. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.  Time :    Fifteen  to  twenty-five  minutes  per  day.    The  class  may 
be  combined  with  other  grades,  below  or  above. 

2.  Purposes:     Improvement  in  form;  growing  mastery  of  move- 
ment; the  application  of  movement  to  form;  maintenance  and  in- 
crease in  interest  and  pleasure. 

3.  First  Month:     As  in  fourth  year. 

4.  Copy  Book:     No.  4,  and  in  long  terms  another  might  be  com- 
pleted.    See  grade  4.     Distribute  the  lessons  so  that  each  will  receive 
a  fair  share  of  time. 

5.  General  Eemarks:     This  is  a  highly  important  year's  work  in 
writing,  for  in  many  instances  it  marks  about 'the  last  year's  school- 
ing for  the  boy  or  girl.     The  student  should  be  constantly  directed 
towards  proper  letter  forms,  so  that  the  legibility  and  general  appear- 
ance of  his  writing  will  show  the  proper  progress.     In  addition  to 
this  attention  to  form,  definite  exercises  designed  to  further  develop 
movement  should  be  given.    Ovals,  ellipses,  "figure  eights/'  push  and 
pull  movements,  etc.,  should  be  used  in  regular  drills.     Then  these 
movements  should  be  applied  in  the  writing  of  letters  and  words. 
Combinations  of  words  requiring  special  practice,  such  as  b,  v  or  w, 
with  e,  b  with  y,  o  with  o,  d,  v  or  s.,  etc.,  should  receive  especial  atten- 
tion.   Lateral  spacing  should  receive  attention.    Many  children  make 
each  line  of  a  copy  shorter,  showing  that  they  vary  the  lateral  spacing. 
Clark's  Public  School  Penmanship  gives  a  very  elaborate  study  on 
the  application  of  movement  to  letter  forms.     The  pupil  should  be 
constantly  encouraged  to  use  his  arm  movement  in  all  of  his  writing 
in  other  lessons.    He  should  begin  to  have  some  power  to  use  the  arm 
movement  entirely  across  the  page. 

6.  Standards :    The  teacher  should  apply  one  of  the  scales  during 
the  year  twice  or  more  times,  and  should  give  timed  tests  on  writing 
familiar  copy,  for  speed  and  accuracy. 

In  addition  to  the  standards  mentioned  in  grade  4,  the  pupil  should 
show  improvement  as  to  the  various  points  therein  mentioned,  and 
should : 

a.     Understand  how  all  letters  are  joined. 


101 

b.  Understand  something  about  lateral  spacing. 

c.  Be  able  to  apply  free  movement  across  the  whole  page. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Time:     The  class,  either  alone  or  in  combination  with  other 
years,  should  have  a  period  of  15  to  25  minutes. 

2.  Writing  Period :    The  writing  period  should  in  general  consist 
of  three  parts,  each  taking  its  proper  share  of  the  time. 

a.  Movement  exercises. 

b.  Study  of  letter  forms,  spacings,  etc. 

c.  Application  of  movement  to  sentence  writing. 

3.  Blackboard  Writing :    As  children  in  the  upper  grades  use  the 
blackboard  more  and  more  they  should  be  taught  to  write  well  on  the 
blackboard.     Certain  lessons  should  be  given  to  this  instead  of  to 
seat-writing. 

4.  Copy  Book :    At  least  one  copy  book  should  be  finished.    A  sec- 
ond book  may  be  finished,  in  cases  where  it  seems  advisable  to  do  BO. 

5.  Correlation:     Writing  may  be  taught  effectively  by  noting  the 
written  work  connected  with  the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

6.  Reference:      See    General   Discussion,   for   the   stages  of  pen- 
manship.    The   child   who   has   made   proper   progress   should   now 
be  entering  on  the  automatic  stage  of  penmanship.     Progress  here 
means  that  the  thought  should  be  given  more  to  the  subject  matter 
than  to  the  process  through  which  the  hand  is  producing  the  hand- 
writing.    Therefore  the  teacher  should  give  attention  to  the  writing 
that  is  done  in  connection  with  the  expression  of  thought  in  various 
school  activities,  and  teach  the  child  to  apply  the  general  principles 
he  has  learned  in  the  writing  periods. 

Many  pupils'  writing  at  about  this  time  actually  begins  to  deterior- 
ate, often  due  to  carelessness  and  lack  of  attention  from  the  teacher. 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES. 
Directions. 

1.  Combine  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  for    instruction    and 
practice  in  writing. 

2.  Most  of  the  writing  should  be  correlated  with  other  subjects — 
particularly  with  arithmetic,  bookkeeping  and  English,  such  material 
as  the  commercial  papers  found  on  pages,  109,  202,  203,  230,  335, 
341-2,  354-6,  358,  362-4.  371  and  438  of  the  Grammar  School  Arith- 
metic, will  be  found  particularly  adaptable  to  correlation. 


102 


3.  The  teacher  will  doubtless  be  able  to  teach  more  by  demanding 
care  and  neatness  in  the  written  work  of  other  subjects  than  by  any 
instruction  she  may  give  at  the  writing  period.  Carelessness  should 
not  be  tolerated  in  any  kind  of  written  work. 


SPELLING 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 
Aims  and  Suggestions. 

The  problem  before  us  is  to  find  out,  if  possible,  the  reasons  for 
misspelling  and  apply  more  rational  methods  in  teaching  this  sub- 
ject 

The  world  demands  two  or  three  times  as  many  Words  as  a  pupil 
can  acquire  before  the  compulsory  school  age  expires,  and  this  deficit 
must  be  made  up  by  resorting  to  the  dictionary. 

Here  are  a  few  reasons  for  misspelling: 

1.  The  teacher  attempts  too  much.     She  tries  to  teach  too  many 
words  in  each  lesson.    The  teacher  often  assigns  more  than  one  lesson 
at  a  time  and  then  spends  little  time  in  testing.     The  words  are  not 
applied  by  the  pupil. 

2.  The  pupil's  pronunciation  may  be  different  and  more  prominent 
than  the  teacher's.     The  people  in  the  community  may  pronounce 
the  word  incorrectly.     The  child  has  become  familiar  with  this  pro- 
nunciation and  for  this  reason  does  not  recognize  the  word  when  the 
teacher  gives  the  correct  pronunciation. 

3.  The  teacher's  mispronunciation. 

4.  Some  pupils  read  little,  hence  they  lack  impressions  and  stock 
of  word  pictures. 

5.  Physical  reasons. 

(a)  Indistinct  vision. 

(b)  Defective  hearing. 

(c)  Blurred  perception. 

6.  Carelessness. 

The  following  suggestions  may  prove  helpful: 

1.  Have  a  definite  period  for  spelling.     It  is  of  primary  impor- 
tance. 

2.  Spelling  is  mostly  an  effort  of  memory  rather  than  that  of 
reason.     The  teacher  should  discover  which  kind  of  memory  predom- 
inates in  the  pupil — the  visual  type  of  memory  in  which  the  child 
depends  upon  sight  in  fixing  the  form  of  the  word  in  his  mind ;  or  the 
auditory — the  kind  used  by  the  ear-spellers  who  recall  the  letters  of  a 


104 

word  through  association  of  the  sounds  represented  by  the  letters;  or 
the  motor  type  of  spellers,  who  learn  by  writing  and  re-writing  or  by 
saying  and  re-saying  words.  Then  there  is  the  mixed  type  where  the 
three  are  employed  in  combination. 

In  the  lower  grades  the  motor  and  auditory  types  predominate. 
Here  the  children  should  be  allowed  to  move  their  lips  while  study- 
ing spelling. 

3.  Assign  the  lesson  the  day  before.     If  the  pupil  is  ear-minded, 
he  should  study  the  lesson  outside  of  school  hours  where  he  can 
sound  aloud  the  words  of  the  lesson.    The  eye-minded  can  learn  the 
lesson  in  school. 

4.  Combine  oral  and  written  spelling.     Oral  spelling  should  pre- 
cede written.    Oral  spelling  aids  pronunciation  and  adds  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  spelling  lesson. 

The  object  of  teaching  spelling  is  to  trwin  pupils  to  spell  correctly 
when  writing. 

5.  Teach  pupils  how  to  study  the  spelling  lessons.     Do  not  let 
them  waste  time  upon  the  easy  words,  but  drill  them  upon  the  words 
commonly  misspelled. 

6.  Arouse  an  interest  in  spelling  by : 

(a)  Spelling  matches. 

(b)  Inter-school  contests. 

(c)  Developing  in  the  pupils  the  spelling  habit. 

(d)  Frequent  drills  but  not  too  much  repetition. 

(e)  Varying  the  methods. 

7.  Have  words  used  in  sentences  or  have  the  meaning  given  be- 
fore oral  or  written  spelling.    Do  not  require  formal  definitions,  but 
make  sure  that  the  child  understands  the  word  by  using  it  in  a  sen- 
tence or  by  giving  its  synonym. 

8.  In  writing  a  lesson  have  no  division  into  syllables  and  no  dia- 
critical marks.    They  change  the  picture  of  words. 

Note:  Pupils  should  be  taught  never  to  divide  a  syllable  at  the 
end  of  a  line. 

In  oral  spelling  the  pupil  should  pronounce  the  word  before  spell- 
ing and  while  spelling  separate  the  word  into  syllables  by  pauses. 

9.  See  to  it  that  the  word  pronounced  is  understood  by  the  pupil 
and  that  it  becomes  a  part  of  his  vocabulary.     Ideas  before  symbols. 

10.  Teach  homonyms  in  dictation  lessons  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
meaning. 

11.  The  principal  diacritical  marks  with  their  names    and    the 


105 

sounds  they  represent  should  be  known  by  all  pupils  on  completing 
the  fifth  grade.  Insist  on  the  use  of  the  dictionary  above  the  fourth 
grade. 

12.  Don't  mispronounce  words  in  order  to  help  the  pupil  spell 
them. 

13.  Emphasize  in  the  upper  grades  accent  marks,  root- words,  pre- 
fixes, suffixes  and  syllabication. 

14.  About  seven  per  cent  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  spelling. 

15.  Grades  I, 'II,  III,  should  have  two  unphonetic  words  daily. 
Grades  IV,  V,  should  have  three  new  words  daily.    Grade  VI  should 
have  four  new  words  daily.     Grade  VII  should  have  five  new  words 
daily.     Grade  VIII  should  have  six  new  words  daily    besides    the 
review  words. 

16.  Alternate  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  spelling. 

Steps  of  the  Spelling  Lesson. 

1.  Word  viewed  by  the  pupil. 

2.  Word  distinctly  pronounced  by  the  teacher  if  the  pupil  cannot 
pronounce  it. 

3.  Word  then  pronounced  by  the  pupil. 

4.  Word  next  used  in  a  sentence  by  the  pupil. 

5.  Study  of  words  by  the  pupil,-  assisted  in  the  lower  grades  by 
the  teacher. 

6.  Oral  spelling  by  the  consecutive  and  promiscuous  methods. 

7.  Written  spelling  in  column.     Contextual  spelling  once  a  week, 
that  is,  using  the  word  in  sentences  or  spelling  from  dictated  sen- 
tences. 

8.  Papers  collected  and  corrected  by  the  teacher. 

9.  Pupils  notified  of  misspelled  words  by  number  of  word  or  dic- 
tated sentence,  the  pupils  who  have  misspelled  being  required  to  spell 
these  words  to  teacher  in  written  form. 

10.  Review  frequently. 

Note:  Co-ordinate  writing  and  spelling  and  have  spelling  words 
for  writing  exercises.  Teach  spelling  in  connection  with  composition. 
Here  is  a  good  place  to  form  the  spelling  habit. 

Spelling  by  Grades. 

Spelling  has  already  been  provided  for  in  this  course  of  study  in 
grades  I,  II  and  III,  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  reading.  Word 
lists  are  to  be  compiled  from  the  reader  and  given  as  special  exer- 
cises. 


10G 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Section  I  of  the  Champion  Speller  may  be  used.  Word  lists  are  to 
be  compiled  from  the  reader  and  made  a  special  exercise. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Champion  Speller,  Section  II.     The  text  should  be  supplemented 
with  word  lists  made  from  the  work  connected  with  other  subjects. 
See  suggestions  and  steps  of  the  spelling  lesson. 
FIFTH  GRADE. 

Champion  Spelling  Book,  Section  III.  The  dictionary  should  be 
used  as  a  reference  work  for  pronunciation  and  meaning. 

A  thorough  review  of  the  elementary  sounds  and  diacritical  marks 
should  be  made. 

Teach  the  pupils  how  to  use  the  dictionary.  Show  them  that  the 
words  are  alphabetically  arranged. 

Drill  them  in  turning  quickly  to  the  word  wanted.  Have  diction- 
ary races  to  acquire  speed.  Show  them  how  to  make  a  choice  of  the 
different  meanings  of  the  word.  The  dictionary  should  be  in  constant 
use  in  language  work.  Cultivate  the  dictionary  habit. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Champion  Speller,  Section  IV. 

Spend  little  time  in  having  rules  for  spelling  committed  to  memory, 
and  then  only  one  rule  at  a  time.  Word  building  and  word  analysis 
may  be  emphasized.  The  meaning  of  words  should  receive  attention. 

See  suggestions  on  spelling  and  reasons  for  poor  spelling. 
SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Champion  Speller,  Section  V. 

Emphasize  accent  marks,  root-words,  prefixes,  suffixes  and  syllabi- 
cation. 

Any  misspelled  word  should  be  given  until  its  spelling  is  learned 
by  all  pupils.  Exceptions  are  to  be  made  where  the  pupil  is  a  chronic 
misspeller. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Champion  Speller,  Section  VI. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  accurate  spelling  in  all  written  work.  The 
pupil  should  be  sure  that  the  words  in  a  written  exercise  are  spelled 
correctly  before  it  is  handed  to  the  teacher. 

Drill  upon  topical  lists  of  words,  Latin  and  Greek  roots,  prefixes 
and  suffixes,  definitions  of  words  and  the  proper  use  of  the  dictionary. 

See  suggestions  on  spelling  and  reasons  for  poor  spelling. 


ARITHMETIC 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

1.  The  Course:     The  course  of  study  in  Arithmetic  consists  of 
two  parts:     (a)  the  general  discussion;   (b)  the  grade  detail  given 
under  the  headings  of  the  various  grades.    No  teacher  can  know  the 
course  properly  without  knowing  both  parts. 

2.  Extent  of  the  Course :    Arithmetic  is  to  begin  in  the  first  grade 
and  to  continue  throughout  the  eight  grades,  although  the  method  is 
varied  to  suit  the  nature  and  powers  of  the  child's  mind  at  different 


3.  Method  in  Primary  Grades:     The  work  in  the  first  grade  is 
largely  oral  and  part  of  it  incidental.    This  does  not  mean  that  it  is- 
to  be  done  at  random  or  by  accident,  but  it  means  that  it  is  closely 
related  to,  and  grows  out  of,  other  lessons  in  school  and  other  activi- 
ties in  the  child's  life,  in  school  and  out  of  it.    It  should  be  carefully 
planned  by  the  teacher,  and  the  teacher  should  have  definite  ideas  of 
what  is  to  be  done;  but  there  will  not  be,  usually,  formal  recitations 
of  such  type  as  older  pupils  have. 

4.  The  Duty  of  the  Schools :    The  general  public  expects  the  child 
to  get  from  his  arithmetical  training  the  following  results : 

a.  A  certain  number  of  arithmetical  facts. 

b.  The  power  to  handle  these  facts  with  accuracy  and  speed. 

c.  The  ability  to  reason  in  mathematical  terms;  that  is,  to  use 
arithmetical  facts  in  the  solution  of  the  problems  that  arise  in  busi- 
ness and  professional  life  which  involve  numerical  relations.     It  is 
the  duty  of  the  school  to  ascertain  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  de- 
mands and  to  satisfy  them  with  as  little  waste  as  possible, 

5.  The  Teacher's  Aim :    The  teacher  is  concerned,  therefore,  with 
four  immediate  ends,  and  should  have  them  clearly  and  constantly 

in  mind. 

a.  The  Number,  Content  or  Facts  that  the  child  should  acquire. 
This  includes  the  ordinary  number,  relations  of  addition,  subtraction,, 
multiplication,  etc. ;  the  processes  in  which  they  are  used ;  some  facts 
and  relations  that  are  often  found  in  arithmetic,  such  as  tables  used 
in  measurements;  principles  used  in  mensuration  of  plane  and  solid 
figures,  as,  for  example,  the  value  of  pi;  facts  relating  to  customs 


108 

and  practices  in  business  life  outside  the  school.  In  general  the  text 
book  is  expected  to  furnish  the  guide  to  these  things,  although  the 
teacher  ought  always  to  have  some  discretion  as  to  omissions  and  addi- 
tions. The  general  principle  that  should  guide  the  teacher  is  that 
arithmetical  facts  in  school  are  valuable  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  use  they  will  have  later  out  of  school. 

b.  Accuracy  in  Using,  Handling  and  Applying  These  Facts :   This 
is  secured  only  by  requiring  pupils  to  obtain  correct  results  from  the 
beginning  and  throughout  the  course,  not  even  the  slightest  errors 
being  tolerated.     Pupils  should  be  taught  consciously  to  test  results 
by  asking  themselves  whether  a  given  result  seems  reasonable  or  not ; 
for>  instance,  if  a  pupil  should  compute  that  five  bushels  of  potatoes 
at  80c  a  bushel  cost  $40.00,  he  should  ask  himself  whether  such  a 
quantity  of  potatoes  ever  cost  so  much,  which  most  children  know  to 
be  unreasonable.     This  would  lead  to  a  revision  of  the  work,  with 
probable  discovery  of  the  source  of  error.    Wherever  possible,  definite 
proofs  should  be  applied,  as  the  subtraction  test  for  addition,  multi- 
plication test  for  division,  etc.     What  might  be  called  the  approxi- 
mate or  round  number  test  is  often  valuable.    For  example,  if  I  have 
multiplied  697  x  18,  since  697  is  less  than  700  and  18  is  less  than  20, 
I  might  multiply  20  x  700  mentally,  giving  1400.    Therefore  my  an- 
swer should  be  less  than  1400.     If  it  is  greater,  then  it  is  certainly 
wrong,  and  the  operation  should  be  gone  through  with  again. 

c.  Eapidity  in  the  Use  and  Application  of  These  Facts:     Speed 
is  secured  only  by  many  repetitions  under  right  conditions.      These 
conditions  imply  that  practice  should  come  at  proper  intervals  of 
time  and  for  periods  of  suitable  length.     It  should  occur  when  the 
child  is  not  fatigued  or  physically  unfit,  when  he  feels  an  interest  in 
the  matter,  and  when  he  can  give  close  attention.    Much  of  the  early 
work  of  the  school  has  rapidity  in  the  simple  fundamental  operations 
as  its  chief  aim.    The  teacher  should  constantly  strive  to  supply  inter- 
est for  drill  and  practice  work,  by  varying  the  methods,  materials, 
etc.,  by  using  contests,  games,  etc.,  and  by  adapting  the  work  to  the 
instincts  of  the  child. 

d.  Neatness :    The  teacher  should  insist  on  neatness  in  all  written 
work.     She  should  recognize  clearly  the  elements  that  constitute  this 
quality,  for  they  are  simple  and  few.    For  instance,  the  paper  should 
be  unsoiled,  and  the  pupil's  hands  should  be  clean  in  order  to  keep 
it  so.    Pupils  should  be  taught  plain  and  simple  forms  of  figures,  and 
make  them  regular  and  uniform  as  to  size,  shape,  etc.     Plus  and 
minus  and  other  operation  symbols  should  be  carefully  and  regularly 


109 

spaced,  not  too  close  nor  too  far  apart.  They  should  run  straight 
across  the  page,  parallel  with  the  top.  Columns  of  figures  should  be 
absolutely  vertical  and  parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  page.  Lines  used 
in  addition,  division,  etc.,  if  intended  to  be  straight,  should  be  abso- 
lutely so.  The  bottom,  top,  and  side  margins  of  the  paper  should 
be  observed.  A  set  of  problems  or  examples  on  the  same  sheet  should 
be  properly  grouped  with  reference  to  one  another.  A  neat  and  uni- 
form system  of  numbering  such  sets  should  be  used.  If  the  teacher 
will  insist  on  these  things  until  proper  habits  are  formed  not  much 
further  attention  is  needed. 

In  the  long  run  the  child  gets  his  ideas  of  school  values  from  the 
school  itself.  The  above  qualities  will  seem  important  to  the  child  if 
the  teacher  shows  strongly  enough  that  these  things  are  important  to 
herself.  Therefore  in  every  way  the  teacher  should  emphasize  the 
qualities  that  she  desires  to  develop.  One  of  the  best  means  to  use  is 
to  show  a  high  degree  of  pleasure  at  any  work  that  exhibits  the  de- 
sired characteristics.  '  Rewards  for  good  work,  and.  punishments  for 
poor,  are  not  the  best  incentives,  although  they  have  their  place. 

6.  The  Fundamental  Processes:     Addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation,  and   division   are  called  the  fundamental   arithmetical   pro- 
cesses.    And  when  we  consider  that  they  constitute  practically  all  of 
the  arithmetic  that  most  of  us  ever  use  in  practical  life  we  see  their 
immense  importance. 

It  is  believed  that  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  lack  of  success  in 
teaching  these  processes  has  grown  out  of  the  fact  that  they  are  often 
treated  as  though  they  were  one  simple,  single  operation,  while  as  a 
matter  of  fact  they  are  all  more  or  less  complex,  and  appear  in  various 
forms  and  phases. 

7.  Processes  Having  Different  Phases :    The  comparatively  simple 
operation  of  subtraction,  for  example,  is  found  in  many  types  or 
phases.     Thus,  we  would  certainly  find  the  types  given  below,  and  in 
them  the  procedure  in  some  cases  considerably  different.    For  brevity 
we  will  use  abbreviations  M  and  S  for  Minuend  and  Subtrahend. 

a.     Where  M  and  S  are  each  less  than  Ex.  9  7 

10.  —4  —3 


b.     Where    M  and    S    have    an    equal 

'number  of  figures  (two  or  more), 

and    each    figure    in     S    has    a 

smaller  value  than  the  figure  of    Ex.  498          6735 

M  above  it.  —286       —5621 


110 

c.     Where  S  has  fewer  figures  than  M, 
and  each  figure  in  S  has  a  smaller 

value    than     the     figure     of     M  Ex.             984  28639 

above  it.                                                                 — 23  — 518 


d.  Where  both  M  and  S  consist  of 
several  figures  and  one  figure  in 
S  has  a  greater  value  than  the 
corresponding  figure  above  it,  but 
the  next  figure  at  the  left  of  S 

is  smaller  than  the  corresponding     Ex.  6639         34929 

figure  above  it.  — 2384       — 4572 


e.     Where  S  has  two  or  more  adjoining 

figures  with  less  value  than  corre-     Ex.         64374  4832 

sponding  figures  above  them.  —16632       — 2465 


f.  The  presence  of  zero  (0)  in  M  or  S  might  be  construed  as  con- 
stituting another  type;  and  evidently  other  variations  might  be 
evolved.  The  above  analysis,  however,  suits  the  purpose  for  the 
present. 

8.  Processes  Exhibiting  Several  Steps  With  Different  Phases  Also 
Possible:  In  such  a  topic  as  long  division  or  square  root,  the  pro- 
cesses are  complex  both  on  account  of  there  being  phases  that  depend 
on  the  chance  relation  of  the  numbers  concerned  to  one  another  and  on 
account  of  the  number  of  steps  involved  in  the  latter  case.  For  in- 
stance, in  division  we  have  to  put  the  numbers  down  in  certain  form, 
draw  certain  lines,  determine  a  trial  quotient,  test  it,  if  unsuccessful 
try  another  trial  quotient  and  test  again.  If  successful  put  down  the 
product,  subtract,  bring  down  some  additional  figures  from  the  mul- 
tiplicand, take  trial  quotient  again,  etc. 

Examples  of  the  different  phases  that  arise  from  chance  relations 
of  the  numbers  might  be  exemplified  by  the  fol-  848962  4-  2436 
lowing:  848962  -~  958 

848962  -5-     424 

Thus  (1)  differs  from  (2)  as  to  whether  the  first  figure  of  the 
divisor  will  go  into  the  first  figure  of  the  dividend,  and  all  teachers 
know  that  this  is  a  serious  question  to  the  child  beginning  the  sub- 
ject. (3)  differs  from  both  (1)  and  (2)  in  that  after  the  first  sub- 
traction takes  place  there  is  no  remainder,  but  several  figures  have 


Ill 

to  be  "brought  down,"  and  the  divisor  filled  by  zeros  (O's).    This  is 
also  a  stumbling  block  for  the  child. 

9.  The  Teacher's  Procedure:    Without  going  into  a  long  discus- 
sion of  the  psychological  basis  of  method,  it  is  possible  to  suggest  a 
simple  analogy  that  may  help  the  teacher  to  attack  the  difficulty  that 
is  presented  above. 

If  we  see  an  oak  tree  that  is  100  feet  high,  it  would  probably  be 
safe  to  assume  that  it  is  200  years  old.  Such  a  tree  has  grown  on 
the  average  less  than  one-sixtieth  of  an  inch  a  day;  its  vast  bulk  has 
been  built  up  out  of  sap  carrying  only  minute  quantities  of  the  vari- 
ous food  elements. 

The  child's  arithmetical  growth  must,  by  analogy,  be  slow  and  his 
mental  food  given  in  small  quantities. 

The  teacher  should  first  recognize  the  different  phases  involved  in 
such  simple  processes  as  addition  and  subtraction,  etc.,  and  the  phases 
and  steps  involved  in  more  complex  ones.  The  subject  matter  should 
bo  presented  to  the  child  in  these  little  steps  and  stages,  oftentimes 
one  at  a  time  and  wliat&ver  drill  and  repetition  and  practice  that  are 
found  necessary  to  install  each  step  in  the  child's  mind  must  be  given, 
before  proceeding  to  the  next  step.  These  steps  thus  taken  are  often 
of  surprising  ease  to  even  the  average  child.  (See  grade  detail,  Para- 
graph 6,  Third  Year.) 

10.  Xew  Processes  and  Topics:     In  new  processes  and  topics  as 
far  as  possible  use  small  numbers  in  explanations,  solutions,  etc.  This 
frees  the  attention  from  the  fundamental  processes,  so  that  it  can 
concentrate  on  the  new  material. 

11.  Explanations:    Explanation  of  the  reason  should  not  be  given 
unless  the  pupil  seeks  such  explanation,  except  later  in  the  course. 
These  things  belong  to  the  science  of  arithmetic.     It  is  sufficient  for 
the  child  to  know  how  to  "carry"  or  "borrow/'  without  knowing  why. 
If  the  teacher  needs  general  rules  to  go  by  in  this  matter  the  folldw- 
ing  may  apply : 

a.  Teach  the  process  only,  without  explanations,  in  all  cases  where 
the  process  is  simple  and  so  much  used  that  it  will  become  fixed  in 
the  mind  and  be  used  automatically. 

b.  Teach  the  explanation  in  cases  where  the  process  is  compli- 
cated and  not  frequently  used,  so  that  the  logical  memory  may  assist 
in  recalling  it  when  used. 

Obviously  the  cases  where  the  first  principle  would  apply  are  many, 
and  those  where  the  latter  would  apply  are  few. 

12.  Eemembering  and  Memorizing:     The  teacher  should  clearly 


112 

distinguish  in  her  mind  between  the  terms  remembering  and  memoriz- 
ing. The  normal  mind  has  a  tendency  to  remember  any  experience, 
and  will  remember  it  if  the  interest  and  repetitions  are  sufficient. 
There  is  nothing  in  nature,  however,  that  corresponds  to  such  work 
as  oral  or  written  repetition  of  subject  matter  for  the  purpose  of  fir- 
ing it  in  our  mind.  It  is  by  no  means  meant  to  imply  that  there  is 
no  place  or  use  for  memorizing  in  the  study  of  arithmetic,  but  it  is 
meant  to  be  indicated  that,  in  most  instances,  it  is  not  a  successful 
way;  things  merely  memorized  do  not  stick.  Besides,  there  are  so 
many  things  that  are  so  rarely  needed  by  the  mind  that  it  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  look  them  up  in  a  book  when  they  are  needed.  This  does 
not  apply,  however,  to  such  facts  as  the  multiplication  tables,  etc. 
These,  one  way  or  another,  must  be  gotten  into  the  mind. 

13.  Kinds  of  Arithmetic:     There  are,  in  general,  two  kinds  of 
arithmetic  or  work  in  arithmetic,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  such 
terms  as  pure  arithmetic  and  applied  arithmetic,  abstract  work  and 
concrete  work.    Both  of  these  have  their  uses  and  functions,  and  both 
are  important.    There  is  a  tendency  in  many  systems  of  teaching,  or 
methods,  to  give  undue  importance  to  one,  and  neglect  the  other. 
The  teacher  should  always  avoid  this  mistake.     The  true  method  i& 
generally  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  but  neither  should  be  neg- 
lected.   In  primary  work  the  emphasis  is  usually  on  concrete  forms  and 
methods,  in  higher  work  it  is  on  abstract. 

14.  Problems  and  Examples:     In  general  the  two  kinds  of  arith- 
metic find  applications  in  two  classes  of  exercises,  usually  designated 
as  problems  and  examples.    On  this  basis  an  example  would  be  some 
exercise  in  which  numercial  relations  are  solved  or  expressed  without 
reference  to  any  particular  objects,  e.  g.,  find  the  product  of  24  x  95; 
while  a  problem  refers  to  a  concrete  situation  or  instance,  as;  what 
would  24  gallons  of  oil  cost  at  9c  per  gallon?     Examples  are  more 
pr6perly  designed  to  secure  practice  and  repetition  for  drilling  pur- 
poses; while  problems  involve  more  use  of  the  reason  and  train  the 
mind  in  applications  such  as  are  used  in  later,  and  outside-of-school 
life.     Both  have  their  uses,  and  neither  should  be  neglected.     Of 
course,  the  example  belongs  to  the  abstract  or  pure  type  of  arithmetic,, 
while  the  problem  exemplifies  the  concrete  and  applied  type. 

15.  Problems  of  Various  Steps:     A  problem  containing  only  one 
manipulation  or  process  to  be  performed  is  often  called  a  one-step 
problem,  while  those 'containing  two  or  three  such  are  called  two-step, 
or  three-step,  problems.     For  instance:     "John  had  two  apples  and 
Mary  gave  him  three  more,  how  many  had  he  then  ?"  would  be  a  one- 


113 

step  problem.  But:  "John  had  two  apples,  Mary  gave  him  three 
more.  After  eating  one  how  many  would  he  have  left?"  would  be  a 
two-step  problem.  In  selecting  problems  of  a  graded  degree  of  diffi- 
culty, careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  matter  of  the  number 
of  steps  they  involve. 

16.  Stages  in  the  Solution  of  Problems:  The  steps  in  the  solu- 
tion of  a  problem  are  four : 

a.  Grasping  or  understanding  the  problem. 

b.  Determining  or  planning  the  processes  to  be  applied. 

c.  Applying  the  processes. 

d.  Testing  the  result. 

(a.)  It  is  believed  that  pupils  are  often  unable  to  solve  problems 
more  on  account  of  failure  in  (a)  than  for  any  other  reason.  In 
the  assignment  of  lessons  the  teacher  ought  to  see  to  it  that  the  pupil 
can  be  reasonably  expected  to  understand  what  is  required  or  sought 
in  the  problem.  The  lack  of  understanding  may  grow  out  of  lack  of 
power  to  read  well,  or  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  objects  or  •  circum- 
stances or  relations  with  which  the  problem  deals;  in  the  latter  in- 
stance, the  child  who  had  never  seen  or  heard  of  a  wagon  would  not 
be  competent  to  solve  problems  relating  to  the  wheels  of  a  wagon. 

A  very  valuable  drill  is  to  fake  a  set  of  problems  at  recitation  times 
and  have  the  pupils  merely  state  what  is  to  be  found.  It  is  also 
valuable  to  go  further  and  have  them  indicate  what  steps  would  have 
to  be  performed,  but  stop  short  of  the  actual  performance. 

(b-c.)  The  whole  course  in  arithmetic  is  designed  to  build  up  abili- 
ty to  achieve  these  steps.  Success  with  them  depends  partly  upon  a 
clear  conception  of  what  we  have  given,  and  what  we  are  to  ascertain 
or  get  or  find.  Many  teachers  do  not  hold  these  ideas  strongly  and 
clearly  enough  before  the  child.  The  whole  course  in  arithmetic  is 
to  develop  in  the  mind  sets  or  series  of  processes  that  fit  certain  rela- 
tions between  what  are  given  and  what  are  to  be  obtained.  For  in- 
stance given  a  certain  price  and  number  of  articles,  and  desired  to 
get  the  total  cost,,  we  multiply;  similarly,  when  a  certain  time  and 
rate  of  motion  are  given  to  find  distance.  Yet  many  children  in  the 
upper  grades  fail  to  solve  simple  problems  of  this  type  merely  because 
they  have  not  been  carefully  trained  in  the  habit  of  attending  to  what 
is  given,  what  desired,  the  particular  type  a  certain  problem  belongs 
to,  and  the  process  such  a  type  requires. 

See  last  remark  (a). 

(d.)     Eead  what  is  said  under  (5-b)  about  accuracy. 

The  first  test  to  be  applied  is  to  give  attention  to  the  result  to  see 


114 

whether  it  is  what  was  desired ;  for  instance,  whether  the  result  was 
dollars  when  we  wanted  dollars.  If  the  problem  involves  various 
computations  in  the  fundamental  process  these  should  be  checked  by 
such  methods  as  recasting  addition,  testing  addition  by  subtraction, 
etc.  each  step  being  tested  when  that  step  is  completed.  The  general 
test  of  reasonableness  should  be  applied.  Also  we  should  apply  the 
valuable  form  of  test  that  we  have  already  called  the  approximate- 
test. 

17.  The  Assignment  of  the  Lesson :    After  pupils  have  gotten  in- 
to the  use  of  the  text-book  many  teachers  assign  lessons  by  merely 
saying,  "Take  the  next  page,  class  is  dismissed."    Except  with  fami- 
liar material  this  is  not  teaching  at  all.    At  least  part  of  the  recita- 
tion, even  half  or  more  of  it,  occasionally  the  whole  time,  ought  to  be 
taken  up  in  going  over  advance  lessons  to  see  that  the  child  clearly 
understands  what  he  is  to  do  and  what  processes  are  involved,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  prepared  to  reason  out  the  proper  steps,  that  he 
may  know  the  fundamental  facts  and  processes,  and  that  he  may  know 
how  to  test  the  results.    Such  an  assignment  often  makes  the  follow- 
ing lesson  a  pleasure  instead  of  a  task.    The  child  likes  to  do,  that  is, 
to  succeed  in  doing.     The  satisfaction  that  results  from  doing  what 
he  sets  out  to  do  is  one  of  the  finest  incentives  in  the  world  for  later 
effort. 

18.  Written  Work:     Pupils  should  never  be  given  written  work 
unless  the  teacher  has  time  to  examine  it.    Neatness  should  be  insist- 
ed upon.     (See  5-d).     Papers  should  have  all  errors  marked,  or  in- 
dicated.   Do  not  correct  them,  however;  if  correction  is  necessary  it 
should  be  done  by  the  pupil,  either  with  or  without  assistance.    Mark- 
ing papers  takes  much  time,  but  there  is  no  other  way  by  which  the 
teacher  can  get  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  results  of  her  work;  and 
this  knowledge,  while  often  disappointing,   is  wonderfully  helpful. 
A  time-saving  method  of  marking  is  to  have  the  class  give  attention, 
exchange  papers,  let  the  teacher  explain  each  problem  on  the  black- 
board, have  pupils  mark  and  grade  on  a  scale  suggested  by  the  teacher, 
and  then  return  papers  to  owners. 

19.  Home  Work:     There  are  many  who  discourage  home  work 
altogether.    However,  there  are  probably  conditions  under  which  home 
work  is  desirable.     It  should  always  be  carefully  assigned,  and  gen- 
erally only  under  the  following  conditions : 

a.     When  proper  surroundings  prevail  in  the  home,  such  as  prop- 
erly heated  and  lighted  rooms  in  which  to  study,  reasonable  quietness, 


115 

and  freedom  from  distractions.  It  may  take  co-operation  between 
teacher  and  parent  to  ascertain  or  secure  these  conditions. 

b.  The  giving  of  work,  the  theory  of  which  is  already  understood 
by  the  pupil.  The  teacher  should  not  send  the  child  home  with  work 
which  he  does  not  know  how  to  do.  This  will  only  bring  discourage- 
ment to  the  child,  with  possible  criticism  and  fault-finding  from  the 
parents,  the  latter  directed  not  only  towards  the  child,  but  also  to- 
wards the  teacher.  Study  in  the  sense  of  using  the  mind  to  work  out 
new  processes,  should  be  done  only  in  the  presence  of,  or  with  the 
help  of,  the  teacher,  and  only  in  the  lower  grades. 

There  may  occasionally  be  cases  allowed  where  problems  present 
only  simple  elements  that  are  new;  but  generally,  unless  the  child 
already  has  the  mental  tools  suited  to  the  solution  of  a  problem,  he 
should  never  be  sent  home  with  it — and  these  tools  are  not  general 
powers  or  faculties,  but  special  knowledge  and  specially  trained  habits. 

20.  The  Child's  Interest:     No  teacher  can  teach  sucessfully  who 
does   not   supply   immediate   interests   and   motives   for   the   child's 
work.          .; 

In  all  the  living  world  about  us  we  find  that  this  is  nature's  method. 
The  animal  or  human  does  not  eat  because  he  thinks  his  organs  or 
tissues  need  replenishment  or  repair.  Nature  does  not  trust  to 
such  remote  motives;  she  has  taken  care  to  see  that  a  strong  craving 
and  appetite  for  food  should  arise  when  the  bodily  tissues  need  it ;  we 
eat  to  satisfy  this  insistent  craving.  Similiarly  a  person  does  not  rest 
because  he  has  a  general  idea  that  his  muscles  are  worn  down  through 
long  sustained  effort;  he  rests  because  there  is  a  strong  feeling  of 
fatigue,  which  is  unpleasant,  and  which  resting  satisfies.  The  child 
plays  because  he  is  resistlessly  impelled  to  motion  and  activity,  and 
this  desire  for  action  is  the  means  that  nature  uses  to  secure  the 
activity  of  organs  and  tissues  which  is  essential  to  their  growth. 

We  must  not  always,  therefore,  expect  to  get  the  young  child  to 
attend  to  his  daily  lessons  merely  because  some  day  it  may  be  use- 
ful to  him.  (The  motive  is  too  remote.)  We  have  to  attach  the  les- 
son to  some  natural  'instinct  or  desire  of  his  that  is  active  at  the 
time,  as  his  desire  to  play,  to  construct,  to  move,  to  do. 

21.  Deficiencies:     It  is  not  a  good  thing,  generally  speaking,  to 
"turn  the  class  or  child  back"  in  the  book  at  the  beginning  of  the 
term.     It  discourages  him,   oftentimes  excites  the  criticism  of  the 
parent,  and  may  be  construed  as  a  reflection  on  the  preceding  teach- 
er's work.     It  is  usually  better,  if  possible,  to  give  oral,  supplemen- 
tary, or  outside  work  of  some  kind,  to  make  up  any  deficiencies  that 


11G 

the  pupil  may  show  or  to  refresh  his  memory  on  points  forgotten 
during  the  long  vacation.  If  several  members  of  the  class  seem  not 
to  know  essential  points  of  previous  work,  stop  the  class  work  for  a 
part  of  the  lesson  and  give  some  oral  review  right  then — if  necessary 
continue  for  a  lesson  or  two. 

22.  Preliminary  Tests:     The  teacher  should  have  clear  ideas  of 
what  the  pupils  know  at  the  beginning  of  any  term's  work.     The 
child  entering  the  first  primary  grade  should  be  tested  by  simple 
questions,  and  by  noticing  him  while  at  play.    At  various  times  writ- 
ten and  oral  tests  may  be  given  to  older  children. 

23.  Promotion  Standards :    The  teacher  should  have  clear  ideas  of 
what  knowledge  and  powers  are  required  for  promotion  at  the  end  of 
each  term. 

24.  Plan  Book :    !NTo  other  one  thing  that  the  teacher  can  do  will 
assist  so  much  towards  successful  teaching  as  planning  each  day's 
work  in  advance.    Where  the  teacher  does  not  have  time  to  plan  all 
of  her  work  she  ought  at  least  to  make  plans  for  the  subjects  that 
present   the   difficulty.      Oftentimes   the    amount    of   planning   that 
can  be  done  for  a  class  in  a  very  few  minutes  will  help  wonderfully 
in  the  success  of  the  recitation,  and  if  this  is  kept  in  permanent  form 
in  a  note  book  the  teacher  in  time  acquires  a  stock  of  material  that  is 
exceedingly  valuable.     In  arithmetic,  especially,  the  primary  number 
work  ought  always  to  be  planned  in  advance.    Usually  enough  work 
for  the  whole  week  can  be  planned  on  Saturday  without  very  much 
trouble.  The  plan  for  any  given  lesson  ought  to  give,  in  brief,  the  sub- 
ject matter  to  be  presented,  notes  on  the  manner  of  the  presenta- 
tion, special  remarks  about  points  or  children  requiring  attention, 
etc. 

25.  The  Individual  Variation  of  Children:     Eecent  studies  and 
investigations  in  the  direction  of  attempting  to  standardize  school 
work  have  emphasized  more  than  ever  before  the  importance  of  the 
variation  in  the  individual  abilities  of  children,  both  in  the  matter  of 
the  amount  they  learn,  and  of  the  ways  in  which  they  learn.     The 
teacher  will  often  have  to  use  careful  thought  in  representing  process- 
es and  facts  in  different  ways,  if  the  child  can  not  learn  them  from  the 
ordinary  mode  of  presentation.    Whenever  methods  or  plans  suggest- 
ed in  this  course  of  study,  or  in  the  textbook,  or  in  the  ways  already 
in  the  teacher's  ordinary  practice,  are  not  successful,  new  methods 
should  be  tried. 

26.  Arithmetic  Abilities:     Modern  pedagogy  teaches  very  clear- 
ly that  there  is  no  general  arithmetical  power  or  ability;  that  arith- 


117 

metical  talent  or  skill  is  made  up  of  many  powers  or  abilities.  For 
instance,  it  is  clearly  proven  that  many  children  know  the  multipli- 
cations well,,  but  do  not  make  successful  application  of  them  in  the 
solution  of  problems;  while  other  children  have  the  power  to  reason 
out  solutions  but  fail  in  securing  correct  results  on  account  of  weak- 
ness in  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  number  combinations.  In 
fact,  there  seems  to  be  but  little  real  connection  between  these  two 
things.  One  source  of  failure  in  the  school  is  that  it  develops  cer- 
tain arithmetical  powers  to  the  neglect  of  others.  Some  teachers  are 
careful  in  drilling  on  the  fundamental  combinations,  but  do  not  prop- 
erly drill  in  the  solution  of  problems.  This  failure  accounts  for  the 
very  large  number  of  pupils  who  will  get  a  correct  answer  by  an  erron- 
eous solution.  In  the  stages  of  the  solution  of  problems  (See  General 
Discussion,  Paragraph  16-a)  a  vast  amount  of  attention  must  be  given 
by  teachers  to  training  pupils  to  read  problems  so  as  to  understand 
what  they  really  mean.  One  of  the  most  eminent  investigators  in  this 
field  of  knowledge  has  said  that  it  may  finally  be  found  that  the  know- 
ing how  to  solve  problems  is  at  bottom  nothing  more  than  the  power 
to  read  them  understandingly. 

FIRST  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.  Year's  Work:    At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  child  should  be 
able  to  count  100,  orally,  without  objects;  to  count  objects  to  100; 
to  add  numbers  whose  sum  is  not  over  ten,  and  make  the  correspond- 
ing subtractions;  to  make  and  recognize  multiplications  by  twos  and 
threes,  whose  product  is  not  over  10 ;  to  separate  groups  of  objects  not 
over  ten  into  two  or  three  parts;  and  to  write  the  numbers  up  to 
twenty,  in  figures. 

2.  Time  and  Periods:    The  teacher  should  give  at  least  ten  min- 
utes to  tbe  number  work  of  this  year  each  day  of  the  term. 

3.  Methods :    The  work  should  be  largely  oral  and  developmental, 
and   connected  closely  with  the  other  work   and  activities   of  the 
school,  and  with  the  life  of  the  child  both  in  school  and  out.     The 
child  will  learn  number  best  through  this  contact  and  experience  with 
things,  not  through  the  mere  words  of  the  teacher.    Therefore  work 
should  largely  fit  into  the  child's  interest  for  play,  for  action,  for 
handling  things,  and  for  constructing  things.     Measurements  should 
also  be  made  use  of. 

4.  Beginning:    During  the  first  weeks  the  teacher  should  use  the 


118 

regular  period  and  other  opportunities  to  ascertain,  by  simple  ques- 
tion and  by  observation,  the  number  content,  or  number  of  facts, 
already  in  the  child's  mind,  as  for  instance : 
How  old  are  you? 

How  many  brothers  and  sisters  have  you  ? 
How  many  pets  have  you?    How  many  kittens  are  there  at 

home? 
I  How  many  can  you  count?    Count  for  me. 

Can  you  count  the  windows  in  the  school  room? 

How  many  children  are  there  in  the  class? 

How  many  pencils  have  I  in  this  hand?     How  many  in  the 

other  hand? 

How  many  will  I  have  if  I  put  them  together? 
5.  Outline :  The  work  for  the  year  is  divided  into  nine  parts  call- 
ed periods.  In  six  or  seven-month  schools  each  period  should  be  cov- 
ered in  a  month,  omitting  if  necessary,  some  of  the  constructions,  oc- 
cupation work,  etc.  In  a  nine  months'  term  a  month  can  be  put  on  the 
same  amount  of  work,  giving  more  of  the  occupation  work,  and  doing 
all  the  work  more  thoroughly. 

1st  Period:    Counting  to  10,  with  and  without  objects,  orally. 
Combinations  of  objects  to  4. 
Separation  of  4  into  parts. 
Eeading  and  writing  of  words  to  4. 
Learning  figures  to  4. 

Incidental  Work:  In  part,  this  work  can  be  made  incidental  to 
other  school  work.  The  child  can  count  in  connection  with  other 
lessons.  Words  and  other  work  on  the  blackboard  can  be  arranged  or 
grouped  to  show  the  numbers  up  to  4.  He  can  note  the  numbers  of 
the  pages.  He  can  hand  out  pencils  or  crayons,  taking  three  or  four 
and  distributing  these,  then  getting  another  three  or  four.  Many  such 
devices  will  occur  to  the  teacher.  Teach  the  familiar  jingle:  "One, 
two,  buckle  my  shoe,  etc." 

Occupation  Work:  Grouping  and  counting  corn  grains,  beans, 
tooth-picks,  splints,  blocks,  paper-folding  etc.  for  teachers  who  are 
familiar  with  such  work.  Stringing  colored  beads  by  twos,  threes, 
fours,  etc.  Laying  splints  in  forms  of  simple  objects,  requiring  two, 
three,  or  four.  Let  the  child  make  three — or  four — inch  rules  from 
pasteboard  at  lesson  periods  with  teacher  helping,  and  use  these  in 
measuring  things.  Use  blocks  to  build  towers,  etc.,  involving  certain 
numbers  of  blocks  upon  certain  constructions,  and  parts.  Eemember 
that  memory  depends  upon  repetition  with  interest  and  attention. 


11!) 

Secure  endless  repetitions  of  these  number  facts  in  varied  experiences. 
(See  General  Discussion,  3-12-20). 

2nd  Period.    Extend  counting  to  20. 

Combinations  of  objects  to  5,  with  separations. 
Reading  and  writing  of  numbers  and  figures  to  5. 
Incidental  Work.     As  in  period  1,  extended  to  correspond  with 
above. 

Occupation  Work.     As  in  period  1,  but  extended. 

3rd  Period.     Extend  counting  to  30. 

Combinations  of  objects  to  6,  with  separations. 
Reading  and  writing  of  words  and  figures  to  6. 
Grouping  by  2's  and  3's  and  combinations  of  these 

groups  to  make  4  and  6. 

Distinguishing  between  cardinal  and  ordinal  num- 
bers to  6. 

Incidental  Work :  As  in  period  1,  but  extended.  Let  the  child  give 
the  number  and  line  of  the  word  he  wishes  to  ask  about,  instead  of 
pointing  out,  in  his  book  or  on  the  blackboard.  Simple  games  of 
store  can  be  played,  which  are  especially  valuable  if  toys  and  money 
made  by  children  are  used  in  the  game. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  As  in  period  1,  but  extended.  Have 
children  make  toy  money.  Continue  constructions,  as  the  child  be- 
comes more  familiar  with  the  smaller  numbers,  that  can  be  combined 
into  simple  problems.  The  too  long  continued  use  of  objects  with 
familiar  numbers  causes  the  child  to  lose  interest,  and  may  arrest 
his  mental  development.  The  teacher  must  always  be  the  judge  as  to 
individual  cases  for  it  will  vary  considerably  with  different  children. 

4th  Period:     Counting  to  40. 

Combinations,  separations,  to  7. 

Ordinals  reviewed  and  extended  to  7. 

Making  figures  to  10. 

Incidental  work:    As  in  period  3,  extended. 
Occupation  and  Seat  Work:     As  in  3rd  period,  extended. 

5th  Period :     Counting  to  50;. 

Combinations,  separations,  to  8. 
Equal  groupings  of  2's,  3's  to  make  6,  or  8.     Cor- 
responding separations. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  This  should  be  extended  and  allowed 
to  take  the  place  of  part  of  the  incidental  work.  The  child  is  gaining 


120 

more  power  to  do  things,   but  his  work   should   be  very   carefully 
planned  by  the  teacher. 

6th  Period.     Counting  to  60. 

Review  combinations  and  separations  to  8. 
Review  groupings  as  above  to  8. 
Writing  numbers  by  figures  to  10. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Continued  and  extended.  Unusually 
capable  classes  and  individuals  may  be  given  some  simple  exercises  in 
addition  and  subtraction  for  seat  work,  either  copying  examples  from 
board,  or  being  given  the  examples  on  paper.  (See  General  Discus- 
sion 5-a.) 

Blackboard  drills,  and  regular  recitation  periods  should  be  used 
for  frequent  reviews  over  previous  period  work. 

Extend  the  use  of  the  problem. 

7th  Period.     Counting  to  70. 

Combination  land  separations  to  9. 

Groupings  of  2's,  3's,  4's. 

Writing  numbers  by  figures  to  15. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Reviews  and  drill  work,  all  carefully 
planned,  in  advance  by  the  day  or  week. 

8th  Period.     Counting  to  80. 

Continue  combinations  and  separations  to  9. 

Continue  groupings  of  2's,  3's,  4's,  to  make  6,  8,  &  9. 

Separate  6,  8,  9  into  2's,  3's,  4's. 

Writing  numbers  to  20. 

Distinguish  between  cardinal  and  ordinal  numbers 

to  9. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work.  Seek  especially  to  provide  appropriate 
work  of  this  kind,  from  various  sources.  The  child  should  now  be 
able  to  play  some  simple  games  involving  numbers. 

9th  Period.     Counting  to  100.     Combinations  to  10. 

Grouping  of  2's,  3's,  4's,  5's  to  make  10  or  less. 
Corresponding  separations  into  2's,  3's,  etc. 

Review  preceding  work;  use  all  opportunities  to  ascertain  child's 
knowledge  or  lack  of  knowledge  and  design  work  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiencies that  are  found. 

6.  Explanation  of  Xames,  Forms,  etc :  See  Paragraph  11.  Do  not 
try  to  explain  anything  to  the  child  unless  he  demands  "it.  In  oral 
work,  or  occupation  work,  etc.,  merely  tell  him  what  to  do. 


121 

Names.  Do  not  use  the  terms  addition,  subtraction,  etc.,  especially 
not  multiplication  and  division.  Provision  has  not  been  made  in  the 
foregoing  for  teaching  the  signs  +,  — ,  x  and  -=-.  In  cases  where  an 
unusual  class  understands  the  work  well  enough  to  give  them  simple 
written  work  they  might  be  taught  -f-  and  — ,  but  for  multiplica- 
tion use  the  form  2  3's  are  six,  etc. 

Forms:     In  giving  occupation  or  board  work  in  addition  or  sub- 

4       6 

traction  the  forms  +3  — 2  are  better  than  the  forms  4+3,  6 — 2, 
since  they  correspond  to  the  forms  in  which  addition  and  subtraction 
are  mostly  found  and  used  in  life. 

7.  Teachers  Helps :    The  following  books  will  be  found  helpful  in 
suggesting  work  in  number: 

Name.  Author.  Designed 

for. 
First  Year  in 

Number.  Hoyt  &  Peet,  Houghton  Mifflin  &  Co.  N.  Y.  1st  yr. 
Beginner's  Number  Primer.  Macmillan  Co.  N.  Y.  1st  yr. 

Number  primer.  Baily  &  German.  American  Book  Co.  Cin.  0.  1st  yr. 
Natural  No.  Primer.  Gibbs  American  Book  Co.  Cm.  0.  1st  yr. 
First  Journeys  in 

Numberland.  Harrison  Waldo.  Scott,  Foresman  Co.  Chicago.  1st  yr. 

8.  Games  For  Number  Work :    Games  useful  in  teaching  primary 
number  work  are  suggested  or  explained  in  the  following  books : 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic,  Smith.  Ginn  &  Co.  Chap.  14,  page  107. 
How  to  Teach  Arithmetic.  Brown  &  Coffinan,  Eow  Peterson  &  Co. 
page  142. 

First  Journeys  in  Numberland  has  work  based  on  playing  store. 

SECOND    GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.     Requirements  of  the  second  grade: 

Review  and  fix  the  ability  to  count,  orally  with  objects  to  100. 

Teach  how  to  write  numbers  with  words  or  figures  to  100. 

Teach  hundreds,  but  not  full  counting  system,  to  1000. 

Teach  addition  combinations  to  sum  not  orer  20. 

Teach  subtraction,  minuends  not  over  20. 

Teach  multiplication  to  product  not  over  20. 

Teach  division  with  dividends  not  over  20. 

Teach  counting  to  100  by  2's  and  3's. 


122 

Teach  fractions  to  sixths. 
Teach  signs,  -f-,  — ,  x,  ~. 
In  adopted  text  go  to  page  49. 

In  addition  and  subtraction  do  not  teach  "carrying"  or  "borrow- 
ing." 

2.  Time  and  Periods :     The  teacher  should  give  at  least  15  min- 
utes a  day  to  the  number  work  throughout  the  year. 

3.  Text-Book:     The  teacher  should  follow  a  book,  otherwise  the 
work  is  not  apt  to  be  systematically  done.     The  pupil,  however,  is 
not  to  have  a  book,  during  this  grade.     Perhaps  the  best  plan  is  to 
follow  the   adopted   textbook   and   this   course,   as   written   for   the 
second  year,  contemplates  that  this  will  be  done.    However,  the  pri- 
mary textbooks  referred  to  in  1st"  grade,  Paragraph  9,  can  be  effectively 
used.    It  is  expected  that  whatever  book  is  followed  the  requirements 
for  the  year  will  be  met. 

4  Methods:  A  greater  use  of  problems  should  be  made  in  this 
year.  Much  that  was  said  relative  to  first  grade  will  still  apply. 
The  occupation  and  seat  work,  games  and.  activities,  should  be  still 
largely  used,  and  the  work  more  or  less  correlated  with  other  work 
and  activities  of  the  school. 

5.  Preliminary  Tests :    During  the  first  day  or  so  of  the  term  the 
teacher  should  give  oral  tests  to  guide  first  month's  work,  and  to  as- 
certain need  of  review,  etc.    The  child  that  has  not  forgotten  a  good 
deal  of  the  first  year's  work  is  the  exception,  but  the  second  learn- 
ing is  much  easier  than  the  first,  and  much  that  appears  to  be  for- 
gotten has  not  really  been  entirely  forgotten.     The  reviews  ought  to 
bring  the  child  up  to  last  year's  promotion  standard  before  beginning 
advance  work. 

6.  Outline:     The  outline  is  made  in  9  periods,  to  be  covered  as 
directed  in  first  grade  detail. 

1st  Period.  Use  Appleton's  Primary  Book,  Articles  -1-2  and  4,  in 
connection  with  the  review  work  of  the  first  week.  Omit  Article  3  for 
the  present.  Supplement  it  with  such  other  work  as  is  necessary. 
Teach  counting  by  2's  to  20.  Complete  book  to  page  10.  Carry  ad- 
dition and  subtraction  combinations  to  12  only,  omitting  parts  of 
pages  5-6-7-8  and  9  that  are  inconsistent  with  this.  Omit  much  that 
Appleton  gives  and  supply  other  material.  Teach  +,  —  and  =,  but 

4       8 

remember  +5  — 6  are  better  forms  than  the  linear  forms,  4  -f-  5, 
8  —  6. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Note  suggestions  of  first  grade.  Select 
work  from  pages  28  and  following,  on  measurements  to  use  here. 


123 

For  games  see:  Hoyt  &  Peet,  First  Year  in  Number,  pages  25  and 
129.  See  Lessons  in  Harrison  Waldo's  First  Journeys  in  Cumberland 
for  lessons,  based  on  "playing  store/'  See  Gilman  &  Williams'  "Seat 
Work  and  Industrial  Occupations",  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Xew  York 
City,  for  constructions  to  be  used  in  "playing  store/'  etc. 

2nd  Period.  Carry  combinations  to  14,  in  addition  and  subtraction. 
Use  part  of  work  omitted  in  1st  period,  in  Appleton.  Take  multiplica- 
tion combinations  to  product  not  over  14,  using  only  appropriate 
parts  of  tables  and  exercises  in  Appleton's.  Cover  the  text  with 
proper  omissions  to  page  16.  Counting  by  2's  and  3's  to  30.  Eeview 
signs  plus  and  minus  and  teach  the  sign  X.  Review  previous  month's 
work,  and  when  you  find  a  deficiency  stop  right  then  to  remove  it, 
by  private  or  individual  work  for  as  long  as  need  be. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Make  especial  efforts  to  give  this 
work  proper  attention,  so  as  to  secure  true  development  for  the  child ; 
these  activities  should  always  be  such  that  the  child's  need  for  num- 
ber will  grow  out  of  them  in  a  way  that  he  will  feel  it,  and  they  should 
feel  the  reality  and  genuineness  of  the  thing. 

3rd  Period.  Carry  division  to  dividend  of  14.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  teacher  should  yet  refer  to  this  as  division,  but  the  work 
should  still  be  carried  on  merely  as  separating  numbers  into  parts,  or 
rather  groups  into  smaller  groups.  Textbook  to  page  23,  omitting 
all  parts  that  are  inconsistent  with  the  requirements  of  this  manual. 
Count  by  2's  and  3's  to  40.  If  examples  on  page  21  are  used  as 
written  exercises  note  that  quotient  is  placed  above  the  line  over  the 
dividend. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work.     As  before. 

4th  Period.  Eeview  previous  months'  work.  Teach  Roman  num- 
bers to  12.  See  device  in  Baily  &  German's  Number  Primer  for 
teaching  "how  to  tell  the  time."  Extend  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, and  division  work  to  16.  Count  by  2's  and  3's  to  50.  Get 
practice  material  from  textbook,  pages  30-35,  omitting  combinations 
involving  numbers  over  16  and  fractions. 

5th  Period.  Review  Roman  numbers  and  the  telling  of  time.  Carry 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  work  to  18.  Count 
by  2's  and  3's  to  60.  Get  practice  material  as  in  period  4,  omitting 
where  necessary. 

Occupation  and  $eat  Work.  Combination  of  previous  work  with 
new  devices  where  possible. 

6th  Period.  Pages  23-27  inclusive.  Fractions.  Be  sure  to  use 
objects  and  drawings  very  abundantly  so  that  the  child  will  get  the 


124 

proper  concrete  idea  of  the  fraction.  Use  correlated  and  illustrative 
material  from  next  section  on  measurements. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Design  this  work  especially  in  your 
plans  with  reference  to  fractions. 

7th  Period.  Review  combinations  and  all  processes  to  18.  Go 
back  in  book  to  omitted  portions  and  use  material  there.  Get  sup- 
plementary work  from  other  sources.  Take  your  own  copy  of  the 
book  some  Saturday,  and  with  marginal  notes  indicate  in  what  month 
each  part  of  various  pages  comes.  When  you  have  taught  the  month 
out,  indicate  by  notes  what  week  you  think  each  part  ought  to  come 
in  that  month.  Count  by  2's  and  3's  to  80.  Extend  Eoman  num- 
bers to  15. 

Occupation  Work.  As  before.  Keep  up  your  interest  and  atten- 
tion in  this,  and  write  down  your  most  effective  devices  in  your  note 
book  in  permanent  form  for  future  use. 

8th  Period.  Extend  combinations  in  all  processes  to  20.  Drill  on 
counting  by  2's  and  3's  to  100.  Extend  Roman  numbers  to  page  20. 
Use  textbook,  pages  34-41  inclusive,  for  review  material. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Provide  suitable  work  for  seat,  design- 
ed to  secure  necessary  drills. 

9th  Period.  Pages  42  and  47  in  textbook.  Review  combinations 
in  addition  and  subtraction  of  previous  month's  work.  Review  and 
extend  notation  and  numeration  to  1000  as  stated  In  requirements. 
Begin  to  round  up  the  work  of  the  year  and  strengthen  weak  places. 
Drill  on  counting  by  2's  and  3's,  on  the  required  multiplication  and 
division,  etc. 

Occupation  Work.  More  written  work  can  be  done  at  seats  than 
in  previous  months ;  this  with  oral  work  ought  to  be  especially  designed 
to  secure  proper  drills.  The  teacher  should  also  give  much  care  to 
make  the  work  interesting  enough  to  be  valuable. 

THIRD  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Requirements:  The  third  grade  is  supposed  to  complete  Chap- 
ter II,  and  take  all  of  Chapter  III,  in  Appleton's  Primary  Arithmetic. 
In  general,  the  various  arithmetic  processes  and  operations  should  be 
carried  forward  as  follows: 

Enumeration  and  notation  to  100,  including  the  ability  to  write 
numbers  in  words  that  far. 

Enumeration  of  exact  1000's  to  100,000. 

Counting  by  4's,  5's,  6's  to  100. 


125 

Addition  of  two  numbers,  sum  not  to  exceed  1000. 
Subtraction,  with  minuend  not  to   exceed   1000. 
Multiplication,  multiplier  not  to  exceed  9,  product  not  over  1000. 
Division,  divisor  not  to  exceed  9,  dividend  not  to  exceed  1000. 
Fractions,  in  the  operations  given  in  text,  to  sixteenths. 

2.  Time  and  Periods:     The  teacher  should  give  twenty  minutes 
per  day  to  the  class  in  number  for  this  year,  throughout  the  year. 

3.  Notes  on  Method  for  the  Grade : 

The  Textbook.  The  pupil  should  have  the  text-book  throughout  the 
year. 

The  text-book  is  arranged  on  the  so-called  spiral  plan,  different 
topics  thus  being  repeated  at  different  times  and  intervals.  While 
in  general  each  pupil  ought  to  master  as  much  of  a  given  topic  as  is 
presented  at  one  time,  this  arrangement  allows  him  other  opportuni- 
ties for  making  up  slight  deficiencies. 

Every  principle  is  preceded  by  illustrative  and  introductory  mat- 
ter, designed  to  lead  up  to  an  understanding  of  the  material  to  be 
taught.  Such  work  in  the  book  is  usually  labeled  "Preparatory". 
The  concrete  problems  usually  follow  the  drill  on  the  abstract  pro- 
cesses, but  it  is  always  intended  that  the  processes  should  be  taught  at 
first  as  concretely  as  possible. 

The  following  suggestions  given  by  the  authors,  excellently  express 
very  important  truths. 

a.  A  principle  should  first  be  presented  concretely. 

b.  A  principle  must  be  drilled  in  the  abstract  until  it  becomes 
automatic. 

c.  Then  the  actual  problems  must  be  given,  and  the  drill  con- 
tinued on  them  till  .a  pupil  can  use  a  principle  with  ease,  rapidity,  and 
accuracy. 

d.  The  drills  should  be  definitely  on  the  subject  that  has  just  been 
presented. 

e.  Drill  is  to  presentation  what  a  fixing  bath  is  to  a  photographic 
print:  it  keeps  the  impression  from  fading  out. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  above  we  might  say  that  a  child  from 
laying  down  3  sticks  in  each  of  four  groups  might  realize  that  3  times 
4  are  12;  but  after  this  concrete  presentation  must  come  the  repeti- 
tion and  drill  until  he  knows  without  thinking,  that  is  automatically, 
that  3  times  4  are  12. 

4.  Model  Lesson:     Model  lesson  in  measurement  to  be  used  in 
Connection  with  page  66  of  the  text.    In  preparing  to  teach  a  lesson  in 
measurement — the  relations  of  the  units  in  Dry  Measure,  for  example 


126 

— the  actual  measures  should  be  provided,  so  that  the  pupils  may 
obtain  the  facts  at  first  hand. 

a.  Prepare  the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  discussing  with  them  how 
various  commodities  are  measured,  especially  those  previously  studied, 
and  lead  up  to  the  measures  which  pertain  to  the  lesson.     State  that 
grains  and  fruits  are  measured  by  the  pint,  half-peck,  peck,  half- 
bushel,  and  bushel,  as  given  at  the  top  of  page  66. 

b.  By  using  some  light  substance,  like  oats  or  sawdust,  find  the 
contents  of  the  larger  units  in  terms  of  the  smaller  ones.     This 
should  be  done  in  regular  order,  as  shown  in  paragraphs  1,  2  and 
3  on  page  66  of  the  text. 

c.  Write  the  table  of  Dry  Measure  as  obtained  by  experiment, 
using  the  form  shown  on  page  66. 

d.  Follow  the  making  of  the  table  by  a  series  of  oral  questions, 
reviewing  the  facts  of  the  table  and  their  use  in  simple  cases  of 
measurement  and  reduction;  then  supply  written  exercises  requiring 
more  calculation  based  upon  the  relations  and  the  facts  of  the  table 

5.  Solution  Drills:  Bead  section  7,  General  Discussion,  for  an 
occasional  class  period  exercise.  Have  a  group  of  problems  written 
on  the  board,  before  the  recitation  time,  and  keep  them  covered  till  the 
class  assembles.  Then  uncover  the  problems  and  ask  the  class  to  read 
the  first  problem  carefully.  Ask  who  can  tell  how  he  would  solve  it, 
giving  various  pupils  a  chance  to  answer  in  turn;  and  if  possible, 
allowing  pupils  to  solve  the  problems  mentally,  the  teacher  writing 
down  the  result.  Then  ask  pupils  to  apply  the  following  or  other  tests 
in  order. 

a.  Does  it  seem  reasonable  that,  for  instance,  such  a  quantity  would 
cost  about  so  much? 

b.  Take  the  nearest  round  numbers,  or  some  convenient  approx- 
imate numbers  to  those  given,  and  by  multiplying  these  mentally,  test 
the  result  approximately. 

c.  Apply  addition  for  subtraction,  etc. 

This  exercise  is  especially  valuable,  if  used  with  a  list  of  problems 
found  in  the  text-book,  using  the  exercise  during  the  recitation  period 
before  the  assignment  of  the  list  for  the  next  lesson.  Remember  that 
in  these  drills  the  correct  answer  is  not  the  important  thing;  the 
perception  of  the  steps  involved,  and  of  the  way  to  test  it,  are  the  ends 
sought.  Let  the  pupils  suggest  methods  of  testing,  and  if  various 
pupils  suggest  different  tests,  let  each  apply  his  own  test  and  compare 
results.  Try  this  first  with  one-step  problems  and  then  with  several- 
step  problems. 


12: 

d.  Preliminary  Tests :  During  the  first  day  or  so  the  teacher 
should  give  preliminary  tests,  as  indicated  in  second  grade.  The  child 
should  be  at  least  fairly  well  up  to  the  end  of  the  second  year's  pro- 
motion standard  before  taking  up  advance  work. 

For  special  notes  on  the  teaching  of  various  processes,  read  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10  and  11  in  General  Discussion. 

6.  Xote  that  the  text-book  has  carefully  distinguished  the 
various  phases  of  addition,  subtraction,  etc.  and  has  given  these 
phases  in  a  good  order,  with  examples  graded  accordingly.  The  ex- 
ercises on  addition  as  given  in  the  text-book  are  as  follows : 

a.  The  addition  of  one-figure  numbers  to  tens. 

b.  Addition  of  one-figure  numbers  to  a  two  figure  number,  when 
the  sum  of  the  units  (that  is,  the  figures  in  units  place)  is  less  than 
10. 

c.  Column  addition  with  two  figure  numbers  when  the  sum  of 
each  column  is  less  than  10. 

d.  Addition  of  a  one  figure  number  to  a  two  figure  number  when 
the  sum  of  the  units  is  greater  than  10. 

e.  Addition  of  two-figure  numbers,  when  the  sum  of  the  figures 
in  unit's  place  is  greater  than  10. 

f.  Column  addition  when  the  sum  of  the  figures  in  units  column 
is  greater  than  10. 

a-b-c  and  d  are  found  in  Articles  30r3 1-32-34  as  numbered  in  the 
text-book,  and  have  the  heading  as  given  above ;  e  and  f  are  really  the 
points  that  are  indicated  here  but  they  are  not  so  headed  in  the 
text.  The  teacher  should  read  carefully  these  headings,  note  examples 
that  illustrate  each,  and  get  the  distinction  of  the  different  phases 
clearly  in  mind.  In  teaching  the  pupils,  teach  the  steps  one  at  a  time, 
and  have  the  pupil  thoroughly  understand  each  one  before  proceed- 
ing to  the  next.  Do  not  have  the  pupils  memorize  the  classifications, 
nor  pay  any  particular  attention  to  the  distinctions,  except  to  the  one 
difference  that  in  some  cases  the  sum  of  a  given  column  is  over  10 
and  in  others  it  is  not.  Observe  how  the  teaching  of  "carrying"  is 
taught  in  article  34,  and  the  note  under  it,  without  the  use  of  the 
word,  and  without  any  unnecessary  explanations. 

The  same  explanation  is  given  less  fully  in  Article  83,  page  124  of 
the  text. 

The  exercises  on  subtraction  are  given  as  follows:     Subtraction, 

a.  Of  a  one-figure  number  from  10. 

b.  Of  a  one-figure  number  from  a  two-figure  number  when  the 
units  can  be  subtracted. 


128 

c.  Of  two-figure  numbers  when  the  upper  figure  in  each  column 
is  larger  than  the  lower  number. 

d.  When  the  upper  number  in  unit's  column  is  zero. 

Note  carefully  these  exercises,  re-reading  what  is  said  about  the 
exercises  on  addition,  just  above.  The  order  of  these  is  a  very  good 
one,  though  there  might  be  some  question  as  to  whether  it  is  the  best. 
For  instance  (a)  might  be  changed  to  read  from  9,  which  makes  it 
more  naturally  precede  (b).  Also,  a  more  natural  and  easy  step  to 
precede  (d)  might  be  as  follows: 

The  subtraction  of  one-figure  numbers  from  two-figure  numbers  in 
the  teens,  the  upper  figure  in  unit's  place  being  less  than  the  lower. 
This  would  make  a  more  natural  introduction  to  the  device  that  we 
call  borrowing,  for  if,  for  instance  we  take  8  from  13,  we  do  not  mere- 
ly take  8  from  3,  but  we  use  the  1  before  the  three  with  it.  The  child- 
ren ought  to  be  more  or  less  familiar  with  this  fact  by  this  time. 
However,  unless  the  teacher  is  able  to  work  this  matter  out  carefully 
in  her  mind,  it  is  suggested  that  she  follow  the  series  as  given  in  the 
text-book. 

Observe  the  test  that  is  suggested  in  the  example  illustrating  each 
of  these  exercises,  and  take  time  to  teach  it  and  also  to  require  the 
pupils  to  use  it  in  their  daily  work. 

7.  Outline :  ( Suggestion :  Ee-read  all  of  the  outline  for  first  and 
second  years.) 

1st  Period :    Review  numeration  and  notation  to  100. 

.Review  counting  by  2's  and  3's  to  100. 

Counting  by  5's  to  100.    By  4's  and  6's  to  40. 

Teach  and  drill  on  separation  of  the  following  numbers  into  equal 
parts:  10,  12,  14,  15,  18  and  20. 

Review  addition  covered  in  Appleton's  Primary  Arithmetic,  pages 
49  to  55  inclusive  (read  General  Discussion  Sections  7,  8,  9,  10,  16 
and  17).  Write  small  problems  on  the  board  and  have  drills  on 
what  is  to  be  done  and  how  to  test  results,  without  actually  having 
solution  performed.  Use  problems  on  pages  53,  55,  58  and  61  for 
this  purpose,  giving  this  kind  of  drill  before  the  problems  are  as- 
signed to  be  solved  for  a  recitation  lesson. 

Occupation  and  Beat  Work:  This  work  will,  in  an  increasing  de- 
gree, be  related  to  the  preparation  of  the  written  or  oral  lesson  that 
is  to  be  recited  at  the  next  recitation  period.  In  written  work,  insist 
on  accuracy  and  neatness.  (General  Discussion  Articles  4,  5  and  6.) 

Have  each  pupil  make  out  an  addition  table  and  by  actual  counting 
show  him  that  there  are  only  45  addition  combinations  in  all  the  ad- 


129 

ditions  that  he  will  ever  have  to  make,  and  that  if  he  knows  these 
well  he  will  have  no  great  difficulty  with  the  subject. 

2nd  Period :  Continue  review  of  numeration  as  in  1st  period.  Take 
subtraction  as  covered  in  Appleton's  Primary  Book,  pages  56  to  61 
inclusive. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:     See  1st  period. 

3rd  Period:  Appleton's  Primary  Book,  pages  62  to  77  inclusive. 
The  work  covered  in  the  text  is  devoted  to  review  and  practice,  and  to 
advance  work  on  mensuration,  all  of  which  will  furnish  valuable 
material  for  drill  work  on  the  subject  matter  covered  herewith.  It 
is  an  especially  good  time  for  solution  drills  on  problems.  Have  these 
frequently  before  the  assignment  of  the  lesson. 

Take  counting  by  4's  and  6Js  to  60. 

Drill  on  the  separation  of  the  following  into  equal  parts:  21,  22, 
24,  25,  26,  28  and  30. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  The  object  work  used  should  be  con- 
fined mainly  to  new  subject  matter.  The  pupil  should,  if  possible, 
be  asked  to  make  constructions  with  rulers  and  blocks  for  the  work  in 
measurement  given  for  the  month.  Pupils  who  can  not  yet  tell  the 
time  should  be  taught  to  do  so  this  month.  The  teacher  should  out- 
line solution  drills,  and  other  appropriate  matter  in  her  plans.  Do 
not  weaken  the  child's  interest,  and  possibly  arrest  his  proper  develop- 
ment, by  having  him  spend  time  merely  in  counting  objects,  when  he 
is  already  familiar  with  the  numbers  involved. 

Exercises  appealing  to  his  play  instincts  would  be  such  games  as 
store,  bean-bag,  dominoes  made  by  himself,  etc.,  and  used  in  various 
arrangements. 

4th  Period.  Text,  pages  78  to  91  inclusive. 

Pages  78  and  79  and  first  half  of  80  should  be  made  the  basis  of 
a  brisk  oral  presentation  and  board  drill  by  the  teacher,  and  should 
be  covered  at  one  period.  Similarly  pages  85,  86  and  first  half  of  87. 
Article  51  and  such  preparatory  exercises  can  well  be  gone  over  by  the 
teacher  in  the  last  part  of  a  recitation  period  whose  first  part  is  de- 
voted to  work  previously  assigned. 

Take  counting  by  4's  and  6's  to  80. 

Drill  on  the  division  of  the  following  numbers  into  equal  parts :  32, 
35,  36  and  40. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Article  47,  page  79,  suggests  an  occu- 
pation that  each  child  should  be  required  to  make;  extend  this  and 
have  the  child  show  various  small  multiplications  in  the  same  way, 


130 

using  variously  colored  paper.    Let  the  child  color  with  crayons,  alter- 
nate squares  or  rows  of  different  colors. 

Have  child  construct  in  written  form  the  multiplication  tables  to 
be  used  this  month. 

28 


The  multiplication  form,  --  and  the  division  form,  8)  288,  are 
better  forms  to  use  for  most  work  than  28x25  or  288-^-8,  for  they 
have  wider  application  later. 

5th  Period.     Text,  pages  91  to  106  inclusive. 

Eeview  counting  by  4's,  5's  and  6's  to  80. 

Drill  on  the  division  into  equal  parts  40,  42,  44,  45,  48  and  50. 

Drill  incidentally  on  names  and  meanings  of  unit's,  ten's,  hundred's 
and  thousand's  places. 

Have  pupils  make  constructions,  draw  and  color  figures,  and  fold 
paper  to  help  them  get  clear  ideas  of  the  work  in  fractions. 

Take  weather  observations,  use  the  thermometer,  etc.,  as  suggested 
in  the  textbook,  page  104. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  The  teacher  should  mainly  be  con- 
cerned in  maintaining  interest  in  the  drill  work ;  repetitions  and  prac- 
tice are  effective  in  proportion  to  the  interest  maintained  by  the  pupils 
while  practicing. 

6th  Period:    Extend  counting  by  4's,  5's  and  6's  to  100. 

Drill  on  the  division  of  the  following  into  equal  parts :  52,  54,  55, 
56  and  60. 

Drill  on  meaning  of  unit's,  ten's,  hundred's  and  thousand's  places. 

Text,  pages  106  to  116  inclusive. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Have  pupils  develop  multiplication 
tables  through  the  6's  (textbook,  pages  136  to  150)  and  writexthem 
in  a  regular  form. 

7th  Period:  Drill  on  division  of  the  following  into  equal  parts: 
63,  65,  68  and  70. 

Textbook,  pages  116  to  136  inclusive. 

The  teacher  should  never  omit  the  oral  explanatory  drill  work, 
using  blackboard  freely,  giving  solution  drills,  etc.  This  will  not  be 
very  effective  unless  the  work  is  planned  in  advance,  and  it  is  much 
better  for  the  young  teacher  to  write  out  the  plan. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:     The  same  as  for  6th  period. 

8th  Period:  "Reviews  on  whatever  work  may  be  found  necessary, 
especially  short  incidental  reviews  at  recitation  times. 


131 

The  separation  of  the  following  into  equal  parts :  70,  72,  75,  76,  78 
and  80. 

Occupation  and  Seat  Work:  Based  on  the  development  of  the  mul- 
tiplication tables  for  the  6's,  7?s,  8's  and  9's. 

9th  Period :  Pages  154  to  171.  The  separation  into  equal  parts 
of  the  following  numbers:  81,  84,  85,  88,  90,  91,  92,  95,  99  and  100. 
Perform  the  measurements  given  on  pages  161  and  165.  Use  our 
measures  as  far  as  possible  with  such  substitutes  as  sand,  bran,  water, 
etc.,  to  be  weighed  or  measured. 

In  exercise  suggested  on  page  160,  leave  room  in  temporary  charge 
of  some  other  person,  as  an  advanced  pupil,  go  to  some  nearby  house 
and  measure  of  a  lot  plan.  Let  pupils  make  such  a  plan  of  their  home 
on.  a  scale  drawing.  Do  not,  however,  require  pupils  to  undertake 
such  an  exercise  without  ample  preparation  by  the  teacher.  Have  a 
contest  for  ideal  lot  plans,  etc.  Extend  the  work  further  by  making 
a  very  simple  house  floor-plan. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1 .  Requirements :     The  fourth  grade  should  complete   Chapters 
IV  and  V  in  Appleton's  Primary  Arithmetic. 

2.  Time  and  Periods:     The  teacher  should  give  at  least  fifteen 
minutes  per  day  to  the  class  throughout  the  year. 

3.  Suggestions :    The  teacher  should  read  the  detail  discussion  on 
Arithmetic  and  the  preliminary  parts  of  the  grade  detail  for  third 
and  fourth  grades.     The  spiral  plan  of  the  textbook  gives  excellent 
opportunities    for    reviewing    the    fundamental    processes    and    for 
strengthening  any  weaknesses  that  the  pupils  may  disclose. 

4.  Preliminary  Tests:     During  the  first  day,  or  soon  thereafter, 
the  teacher  should  give  some  preliminary  tests  to  guide  her  in  the 
assignment  of  the  first  lessons  and  in  the  conduct  of  the  work  in 
general. 

5.  General  Outline: 

1st  Period:  Text,  pages  172-182.  It  is  suggested  that  not  too 
much  time  be  given  to  the  formal  representation  of  thousand's,  ten's 
and  unit's  places,  as  given  on  page  172.  The  device  there  given  is 
of  doubtful  value.  Short  term  schools  may  abbreviate  the  amount  of 
time  given  to  Koman  Notation,  given  on  page  176.  Classes  already 
proficient  in  addition  and  subtraction  may  omit  these  topics,  while 
those  especially  weak  should  receive  supplementary  work  in  addition 
to  that  given  in  the  text. 


132 

2nd  Period:  Pages .183-194.  A  review  of  the  multiplication  tables 
given  on  pages  152-3  would  be  useful  before  beginning  the  topic  pre- 
sented here.  On  page  186  have  pupils  find  the  value  of  some  local 
piece  of  land,  or  lot,  in  a  way  similar  to  problems  given.  On  page 
191  it  may  be  that  the  first  explanation  given  will  have  a  tendency  to 
confuse  the  child  rather  than  to  help  him  and  that  therefore  the  sec- 
ond form  given  should  be  used  with  such  simple  explanations  as  the 
teacher  may  be  able  to  give.  The  teacher  should  read  sections  seven, 
eight  and  nine  in  the  general  discussion.  To  those  teachers  who  have 
difficulty  in  teaching  long  division,  the  following  series  of  steps  in 
its  presentation  is  suggested: 

a.  A  review  of  such  examples  as  are  found  on  pages  145-9  of  the 
textbook. 

b.  A  list  of  examples  such  as  the  following  in  which  the  divisor 
consists  of  two- figure  numbers,  and  the  first  two  figures  in  the  'hvi- 
dend  will  always  contain  the  two  figures  of  the  divisor  and  also  in 
which  after  every  partial  division  the  next  term  of  the  dividend 
brought  down  is  with  the  remainder  sufficient  for  the  next  oartial 
division.    Examples:    24)  744       31)  9982 

c.  Some  numbers  in  which  we  have  two  figures  in  the  divisor  .uirt 
these  two  figures  are  not  contained  in  the  first  two  figures  of  the  divi- 
dend, but  in  which  after  every  partial  division  the  next  term  of  the 
dividend  brought  down  is  with  the  remainder  sufficient  for  the  next 
partial  division:     Examples:     32)   1342       43)   2322       24)   13584 

d.  It  will  be  well  here  to  take  a  lesson  or  two  for  special  drill  on 
the  matter  of  finding  the  number  of  times  that  the  divisor  will  go 
into  the  first  three  figures  in  such  examples  as  have  been  indicated 
here,  as  this  is  the  troublesome  thing  for  most  children.     One  good 
way  to  do  this  is  to  have  the  children  make  a  little  table.    Thus,  if  the 
divisor  is  24,  have  them  put  down 

1  times  24  =    24 

2  times  24  ==    48 

3  times  24  =    72 

4  times  24  =:    96 

5  times  24  =  120 

6  times  24  =  144 

and  thus  on  until  they  come  to  the  multiple  of  24,  which  gives  them 
the  trial  quotient  that  they  are  looking  for.  This  will  give  the  child 
one  means  by  which  he  can  always  find  the  desired  term  of  the  quo- 
tient, although  it  may  seem  a  waste  of  time  at  first.  However,  he  will 


133 

soon  get  to  the  place  where  he  can  tell  approximately  what  the  re- 
quired figure  will  be  by  inspection. 

e.  Next,  we  should  use  a  series  of  problems  in  which  numbers 
are  selected  without  any  reference  to  the  relative  size  of  the  first  fig- 
ures in  the  dividend  and  divisor,  but  in  which  when  we  bring  down 
the  next  term  from  the  dividend  after  some  partial  division  the  num- 
ber so  obtained  is  not  large  enough  to  contain  the  divisor  so  that  one 
or  more  other  figures  must  be  brought  down  and  noughts  used  to  indi- 
cate the  places  in  the  quotient. 

The  examples  given  herewith  will  illustrate  this  point  and  the 
teachers  should  secure  other  examples  of  this  kind  for  drill. 
24)   12120         38)   77254 

The  above  procedure  may  seem  to  the  beginner  unnecessarily  long 
and  tedious,  but  experience  has  shown  that  the  lack  of  a  procedure  in 
which  the  child  is  taught  one  simple  step  at  a  time  is  one  of  the  great- 
est causes  of  failures  in  teaching  division.  Care  in  developing  these 
different  steps  is  better  than  any  attempt  to  explain  division  by  bun- 
dles of  splits  or  other  devices  based  on  the  values  or  relations  of 
?in  its,  tens,  hundreds,  etc.  The  method  given  above  would  take  per- 
haps a  month  or  more  QJ£  time  if  sufficient  drill  is  given  in  each  step, 
but  it  will  prove  an  economical  way  of  teaching  the  subject. 

3rd  Period:  Pages  195-204.  Short  term  schools  if  crowded  for 
time  may  omit  the  subject  of  Special  Multiples,  except  tens  and  hun- 
dreds. The  work  in  fractions  should  receive  careful  attention. 

4th  Period :  Pages  205-217.  Such  fractions  as  have  denominators 
in  excess  of  twelfths  might  be  omitted  unless  there  is  plenty  of  time 
to  take  all  problems  given.  Computations  suggested  on  page  212 
should  be  applied  to  some  local  home  place. 

5th  Period.  Pages  204-225.  Make  a  ring  toss  board  similar  to 
the  one  shown  on  page  223.  Make  rings  out  of  heavy  string  if  metal 
or  wooden  ones  cannot  be  secured.  Use  the  game  with  the  fractional 
values  indicated  for  drill  in  adding  fractions.  In  the  problems  on 
pages  224-5  have  some  solution  drills. 

6th  Period.  Pages  226-231.  The  processes  in  fractions  in  this 
period  should  be  drilled  upon,  but  no  attempt  made  to  explain  the 
underlying  reason.  Give  especial  attention  to  the  topic  of  business 
problems,  page  231. 

7th  Period:    Pag;es  232-240. 

8th  Period :  Pages  241-250.  Try  to  secure  some  actual  bills  from 
your  own  files  or  elsewhere  to  illustrate  the  subject.  Secure  some  bill- 


134 

heads  from  the  local  merchants  and  make  off  bills  on  them.  Some  day 
have  a  game  of  store.  Take  the  price  list  from  the  market  quotations 
given  in  the  daily  papers.  The  work  of  this  period  might  well  be 
correlated  with  the  writing  lessons. 

9th  Period :  Pages  251-263.  Use  the  review  lists  for  two  purposes, 
to-wit :  drills  and  tests.  Ascertain  the  weak  places  in  the  preceding 
work  and  use  the  opportunities  you  have  to  correct  them.  To  very 
many  pupils  this  will  be  the  last  year's  work  and  they  should  have 
this  drill  in  the  common  processes.  In  the  problems  in  the  general 
review  give  a  great  many  solution  drills.  If  the  child  understands 
what  he  must  do  in  many  of  these  problems,  it  is  not  necessary  actu- 
ally to  perform  the  work. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Eequirements :    Pupils  should  now  begin  the  Appleton's  Gram- 
mar School  book.     This  is  to  be  covered  to  page  120,  in  the  year's 
work. 

2.  First  Day's  Work:     It  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  at  the 
regular  program  time  for  this  year's  class  should  have  ready  a  care- 
fully thought  out  plan  for  an  oral  and  blackboard  test  on  the  funda- 
mentals that  have  been  already  taught,  in  preceding  years.    If  a  pupil 
shows  a  fair  familiarity  with  these,  pages  1-14,  especially  in  short 
term  schools^  may  be  omitted. 

3.  The  best  general  preparation  the  teacher  can  make  for  the 
year's  work  would  be  to  read  the  General  Discussion,  and  the  prelim- 
inary remarks  to  the  Third  Grade  Detail. 

4.  Outline : 

1st  Period:  Pages  1  to  31.  Perhaps  in  most  cases  an  experienced 
teacher  could  well  modify  the  subject  matter  as  given  in  the  book, 
making  additions  or  omissions,  hitting  the  weak  places  of  the  class 
when  found,  and  strengthening  and  developing  them.  The  whole 
month's  work  is  really  review  work. 

2nd  Period :  Pages  32  to  46.  This  is  also  review  work,  and  should 
be  used  to  suit  the  needs  of  each  class,  with  such  deviations  from  the 
text  as  the  teacher  finds  best. 

3rd  Period :  Pages  47  to  58.  Try  to  get  actual  papers  to  illustrate 
Articles  50  and  52.  For  seat  work  let  pupils  e.xtend  the  exercises 
in  Article  63,  page  49,  by  making  a  table  of  their  own,  up  to  60,  or 
higher.  This  is  a  very  valuable  exercise. 


135 

4th  Period:  Pages  59  to  68.  To  many  pupils  the  reduction  of 
fractions  is  very  difficult.  Follow  each  step  carefully  as  here  given, 
taking  the  needed  time  for  each,  before  proceeding  to  the  next. 

5th  Period:  Pages  69  to  77.  This  presents  difficulties  to  many 
children,  but  careful  teaching  will  dispel  many  of  them.  It  is  a  very 
important  period. 

6th  Period :  Pages  77  to  93.  The  work  assigned  to  this  period  may 
require  a  little  more  than  a  month  for  completion. 

7th  Period :  Pages  94  to  98.  Apply  the  principles  that  have  been 
mentioned  at  various  places  heretofore  in  the  review  work  of  this 
period.  Give  solution  drills;  use  the  review  to  discover  and  correct 
the  weakness  of  previous  instruction. 

8th  Period:     Pages  99  to  110. 

9th  Period:  Pages  111  to  120.  Direct  the  work  of  the  review 
towards  promotion  tests. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Grade  Detail. 

1.  Eequirements :    Appleton's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic,  Chap. 
IV,  pages  121-  230. 

2.  Beginning:     Give  tests  the  first  day  of  term,  as  suggested  in 
previous  years. 

3.  Time :     The  class  should  have  15  minutes  a  day,  throughout 
the  year. 

4.  Outline: 

1st  Period.  Pages,  121  to  135.  In  first  few  days  give  any  reviews 
in  the  fundamental  operations  that  may  seem  necessary.  In  short- 
terms  schools,  or  in  all  cases  where  necessary  review  shortens  time 
for  advance  work,  the  following  omissions  may  be  made :  . 

Omissions :  Angular  measure ;  Article  167,  page  128.  "Questions  on 
tables  not  much  used,"  page  124. 

2nd  Period:  Pages  136-150.  The  pupils  should  be  able  to  recog- 
nize and  name  the  various  geometrical  figures  given,  pages  138-139, 
but  should  not  be  required  to  memorize  the  definitions. 


136 

In  some  of  the  triangles  a  little  more 
explanation  ought  to  be  given  to  show 
that  the  line  representing  the  altitude 
often  falls  without  the  area  of  the  tri- 
angle. Thus  in  the  figure  given  here- 
with the  line  CD  is  the  altitude,  but  is 
not  inside  of  the  triangle  at  all.  It  is 
also  believed  that  pupils  will  experience 
no  difficulty  in  naming  or  reading  lines 
and  figures  by  means  of  letters  placed 
at  the  proper  points;  as,  for  instance, 
the  line  AC,  or  the  triangle  ABC,  in 
in  the  figure  given. 

D 

The  work  of  this  period  is  very  practical  and  useful,  and  will  be 
made  more  so  if  actual  piles  of  cordwood,  foundations,  houses,  etc., 
are  measured,  and  used  as  the  basis  of  problems. 

3rd  Period :  Pages  151-165.  Read  General  Discussion,  Articles  16 
and  23.  Take  especial  care  with  the  solution  exercises,  pages  154-5. 
The  sections  on  Unitary  Analysis  and  Approximate  Results  in  the 
text  are  very  important.  If  pressed  for  time,  Articles  201  and  205 
may  be  omitted. 

4th  Period:  Pages  165  to  177.  There  are  in  use  two  common 
methods  of  dividing  fractions,  the  one  given  in  the  text  and  the  method 
by  which  we  point  off  as  many  places  in  the  quotient  as  the  number 
in  the  dividend  exceed  those  in  the  divisor.  The  method  of  the  text 
is  believed  to  be  the  better.  This  is  a  good  period  in  which  to  give 
especial  attention  to  speed  and  accuracy.  If  any  omissions  are  neces- 
sary Article  207  may  be  omitted. 

5th  Period:  Pages  178  to  191.  Give  careful  attention  to  the  pre- 
paratory paragraphs  for  the  various  processes.  The  teacher  can  save 
time  and  make  the  work  better  by  indicating  what  topics  the  prob- 
lems for  review  are  connected  with  and  which  problems  should  be 
omitted. 

6th  Period:  Pages  191  to  202.  Teacher  will  avoid  many  diffi- 
culties by  using  care  in  the  assignment  of  the  lessons  of  this  period. 
Many  oral  and  blackboard  illustrations  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
the  difficulties  involved  in  some  of  the  problems.  Besides  the  difficul- 
ties connected  with  percentage  itself,  there  are  others  growing  out  of 
the  fact  that : 


, 

a.  Many  of  the  problems  are  two  or  three  step  problems,  or  even 
more,  problem  14,  page  193,  having  four  steps. 

b.  Many  problems  contain  data  that  is  of  no  use  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem.    For  instance,  in  example  14,  page  193,  the  fact  that 
the  tailor  made  6%  dozen  coats  has  really  no  essential  connection  with 
the  issue  at  all,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  given  only  tends  to  confuse  the 
child.     The  child  really  should  be  so  informed. 

c.  The  percentage  in  many  cases  can  be  computed  equally  well  on 
the  basis  of  one  or  on  more  than  one  article.    In  the  same  problem 
14,  page  193,  the  gain  can  be  computed  almost  equally  well  on  the 
basis  of  one  coat,  or  on  a  dozen  coats.     In  general,  percentage  of 
losses  and  profits  has  little  to  do  with  the  amount  or  numbers  in- 
volved in  transactions,  and  the  child  should  receive  some  instruction 
to  help  him  understand  this. 

Each  lesson  assignment  should  clear  the  ground  for  the  private 
work  of  study  of  the  child,  by  preliminary  discussions,  explanations 
and  illustrations,  covering  such  points  as  these,  and  related  to  definite 
problems  that  are  assigned. 

7th  Period:  Pages  201  to  211.  The  applications  of  percentage  in 
insurance,  taxes,  etc.,  are  usually  interesting  and  clear  to  the  child 
only  in  proportion  to  the  degree  with  which  they  are  brought  near  to 
actual  life.  Therefore  these  should  apply  to  his  own  school  district, 
his  own  home,  etc.  Try  to  secure  the  necessary  facts  upon  which  to 
make  problems  applying  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  school. 
Get  actual  check  blanks  and  actually  paid  checks.  In  many  places 
the  teacher  can  get  actual  insurance  policies  and  other  real  papers. 
If  in  a  town,  the  insurance  agent  can  probably  show  you  the  actual 
map  he  uses  in  which  all  houses  of  the  town  are  located,  kinds  of  roof 
shown,  etc. 

8th  Period:  Pages  211  to  230.  The  review  lists  should  be  used 
to  test  previous  teaching,  strengthen  the  weak  places,  and  to  get  ready 
for  the  promotion  standards.  For  this  reason  in  many  cases  the  best 
way  is  not  to  use  them  straight  through,  in  the  order  in  which  they 
come,  but  to  make  judicious  selections,  omissions,  and  additions. 

Read  Section  16  in  General  Discussion  and  also  remarks  under 
Period  6,  above. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

1.  Teacher's  Preparatory  Work:  Eead  the  General  Discussion, 
also  the  preliminary  and  explanatory  part  of  the  Grade  Detail  for  the 
preceding  two  years. 


138 

2.     Outline: 

1st  and  2nd  Periods:  Pages  231  to  265.  The  work  of  these  two 
periods  is  essentially  a  general  review.  The  teacher  should  give  tests, 
orally  for  the  most  part,  the  first  day,  to  see  what  use  should  be  made 
of  the  review  examples  and  problems  as  found  in  the  textbook.  It 
may  be  found  that  some  parts  of  the  review  can  be  omitted,  or  that 
certain  examples  may  be  omitted  and  others  added. 

Short  term  schools  may  omit  the  following  topics:  Article  269, 
page  236;  Article  276,  page  245;  Article  284,  page  251.  Since  it  is 
the  opinion  of  some  authorities  that  finding  the  Greatest  Common 
Divisor,  and  the  Least  Common  Multiple  are  not  useful,  so  far  as 
large  numbers  are  concerned,  the  time  given  to  these  subjects  may  be 
reduced  to  the  minimum. 

3rd  Period:     Pages  266  to  276. 

4th  Period :  Pages  277  to  290.  In  each  list  take  the  opportunity 
to  give  solution  drills,  and  apply  any  other  principles  that  have  been 
given  herein  to  secure  growth  in  the  ability  to  reason  out  and  solve 
problems. 

5th  Period:  Pages  291  to  303.  It  is  suggested  that  short  term 
schools,  provided  they  have  to  make  any  omissions,  should  omit  Arti- 
cle 329 ;  Longitude  and  Time  is  regarded  by  many  as  not"  being  of 
great  importance,  and  if  necessary  the  amount  of  time  given  to  it 
may  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  The  topic,  "Unitary  Analysis,"  is 
of  much  importance,  as  a  very  large  number  of  problems  in  life,  as 
well  as  in  school,  are  solved  by  it. 

6th  Period:    Pages  302  to  311. 

7th  Period:  Pages  312  to  325.  Make  the  subjects  of  taxes,  com- 
missions, etc.,  of  real  interest  by  introducing  problems  based  on  local 
applications  or  facts. 

8th  Period:  Pages  326  to  339.  In  case  where  omissions  are  nec- 
essary topics  379-380,  page  329,  "Exact  Interest/'  and  393-394,  page 
337,  "Partial  Payments,"  may  be  omitted,  or  the  time  allowed  them 
be  greatly  reduced. 

9th  Period:  Pages  339-353.  If  omissions  are  necessary,  Article 
398,  page  342;  Articles  402-3,  page  345,  and  Partial  Payments,  on 
page  347,  may  be  omitted  or  given  reduced  time. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 
Grade  Detail. 

Outline:  Half  the  year  should  be  given  to  the  completion  of  the 
textbook ;  the  other  half  to  elementary  bookkeeping. 


1st  Period:  Pages  354-378.  It  is  suggested  that  inasmuch  as  most 
of  the  topics  covered  in  this  period  have  been  previously  taught,  only 
hasty  review  of  them  be  taken  in  the  first  period.  Any  omissions 
found  necessary  or  expedient  may  be  made. 

2nd  Period:  Pages  379-396.  It  is  recommended  that  the  process 
of  square  root  be  taught,  without  much  effort  to  explain  the  reason 
for  the  various  steps,  except  where  especially  desirable.  The  ralue  of 
a'pi"  should  be  memorized,  and  it  should  be  noted  that  in  partical  use 
many  mechanics  find  3-1/7  near  enough  for  its  yalue;  however,  the 
problems  given  in  the  text  should  be  solved  with  the  value  as  given. 
The  rules  relating  to  the  properties  of  the  circle  are  valuable,  and 
should  be  mastered. 

3rd  Period :  Pages  397-406.  The  properties  of  the  pyramid,  cone, 
and  the  frustrum  of  each,  are  in  general  not  as  well  worth  knowing 
as  many  of  the  other  figures  whose  measurements  are  to  be  found.  If 
there  is  time,  however,  a  moderate  amount  of  time  should  be  given  to 
their  rules  of  measurement. 

4th  Period :  Take  a  general  review,  applying  the  suggestions  that 
have  been  repeated  throughout  this  course  with  regard  to  such  lists. 
If  time  can  be  found  give  some  attention  to  the  metric  system. 

HELPFUL  BOOKS  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  ARITHMETIC. 

Teachers  wishing  to  make  further  study  of  the  teaching  of  arith- 
metic are  referred  to  the  following  books : 

Number  by  Development.  By  John  C.  Gray.  Published  by  J.  B. 
Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Gives  a  complete  system  for 
teaching  primary  number  work,  given  in  such  detail  that  it  can  be 
applied  by  the  teacher.  The  system  is  well  recommended  by  those  who 
have  tried  it. 

The  Teaching  of  Mathematics.  By  J.  W.  A.  Young.  Published 
by  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York.  Gives  full  treatment  of  the 
teaching  of  high  school  mathematics,  as  well  as  of  arithmetic.  Is 
useful  for  a  general  study  of  the  subject. 

How  to  Teach  Arithmetic.  By  Brown  &  Coffman.  Eow,  Peterson 
&  Co.,  Chicago.  A  full  discussion  of  the  general  subject  of  methods 
of  teaching  arithmetic,  historically  and  otherwise.  Quite  complete 
on  the  subject. 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic.  By  David  Eugene  Smith.  Ginn  & 
Co.,  New  York.  A  discussion  .in  a  brief  form  of  the  philosophy  and 
status  of  teaching  of  arithmetic.  One  of  the  best  of  the  smaller  works. 

Psychology  of  Number.     By  McLellan  &  Dewey.    Appleton  &  Co., 


140 

New  York.  Discusses  the  psychology  of  number  and  gives  several 
chapters  on  method. 

The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic.  By  A.  W.  Stamper.  American  Book 
Co.,  Cincinnati.,  0.  Treats  of  the  history  and  development  and  pres- 
ent status  of  method.  Quite  a  clear  and  thorough  presentation  of  the 
subject. 

Special  Method  in  Arithmetic.  McMurry.  Macmillan  &  Co.,  New 
York.  Treats  the  method  of  teaching  quite  fully. 

The  Number  Concept.  Conant.  Macmillan  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Gives  the  historical  development  of  the  number  idea  in  the  human 
mind.  Does  not  treat  of  the  method  of  teaching  arithmetic,  or  of 
arithmetic  in  general. 

The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic.  Henry  Suzzalo.  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  New  York.  A  critical  study  of  recent  tendencies. 


V. 

NATURE  STUDY 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 
Statement. 

Nature  Study  deals  with  common  objects  and  processes  as  they 
directly  affect  human  life  and  interests. 

Both  the  material  and  method  must  be  for  the  child  rather  than 
for  the  adult. 

Guide  for  the  teacher : 

1.  Is  it  suitable  material? 

2.  Can  it  be  seen,  handled,  etc.  ? 

3.  Is  it  a  common  thing? 

4.  Does  it  have  any  common  interest  ?    Ex. — The  house-fly  ? 
The  main  purpose  is  to  get  the  child  to  see  and  think  for  himself. 

A  study  of  nature  enables  the  child  to  grasp  the  forces  about  him  and 
to  turn  them  to  his  advantage. 

The  aim  should  be  to  awaken  an  interest  in  nature  and  to  give  a 
general  acquaintance  with  it,  as  it  lies  nearest  to  the  children. 

The  children  should  be  brought  into  actual  contact  with  the  object 
of  study,  whenever  possible,  either  in  or  out  of  the  school  room.  Na- 
ture study  is  a  study  of  natural  forces  and  natural  objects  in  their 
natural  setting. 

Emphasis  should  be  placed  at  all  times  on  plants  and  animals  as- 
living  things,  and  their  mutual  dependence  upon  each  other. 

In  the  lower  grades,  nature  study,  geography  and  physiology  should 
be  taught  through  the  year  as  one  subject  and  in  one  way  or  another 
appear  on  every  day's  program. 

The  lessons  may  afford  additional  material  for  language  and  com- 
position work. 

In  rural  schools  all  the  children  in  Grades  I-III  should  be  grouped 
together  for  this  work. 

FIRST  GRADE. 
Fall. 

Birds,  trees,  flowers,  pets,  earth  and  sky  should  be  the  general 

topics. 


142 

Teach  only  the  facts  which  are  easily  within  the  child's  compre- 
hension. 

Birds:  Eecognition  and  name  of  some  of  the  common  birds  of  the 
locality,  their  food  and  feeding  habits.  Encourage  the  children  to 
feed  the  birds  and  to  build  bird  houses.  Some  kinds  of  birds  leave  us 
in  the  fall.  Why?  Note  the  time  when  they  go.  Note  when  they 
return. 

Trees:  Eecognition  of  trees  by  leaf,  fruit,  bark.  Winter  buds, 
their  color  and  protection.  Study  the  kinds  of  fruit  grown  in  the 

neighborhood. 

* 
Field  Trip. 

Purpose:  To  identify  the  forest  trees  of  the  locality,  and  collect 
specimens  of  leaves,  bark,  and,  if  possible,  the  fruit. 

Note  to  Teacher:  Unless  the  trip  is  carefully  planned  and  both  the 
object  to  be  attained  and  the  method  of  procedure  are  definitely  fixed 
in  mind  the  trip  will  degenerate  into  a  mere  picnic  excursion  without 
object  or  destination. 

Things  to  Observe:  Note  the  two  great  classes  of  trees,  evergreen 
(like  the  pine  or  cedar)  and  deciduous  (like  the  oak). 

Observe  the  bark  and  leaf  of  some  of  the  common  trees,  but  do  not 
attempt  too  many  at  one  trip.  It  will  lead  to  confusion  of  ideas. 

Collect  bark  and  leaves  and  fruit  when  possible.  This  material  may 
serve  for  language  and  drawing  lessons. 

Note  the  rings  of  the  end  of  a  log  that  has  been  sawed  squarely 
across.  If  a  log  cannot  be  found  have  one  or  more  of  the  boys  to 
bring  to  school  blocks  sawed  off  so  that  the  annual  growth  of  the  tree 
may  be  seen. 

Look  for  diseased  trees.    How  are  they  injured  ? 

Try  to  find  a  place  where  trees  have  prevented  excessive  washing 
of  hillside.  Look  for  beautiful  trees  suitable  for  shade. 

School-Room  Work  Based  on  Field  Trip. 

Oral  story  of  trip  by  the  pupils. 

Have  pupils  who  can  write  make  a  list  of  trees  studied.  This  may 
serve  for  a  spelling  lesson  as  well  as  a  writing  lesson. 

A  written  composition  may  be  required  of  the  older  pupils. 

Have  pupils  draw  and  paint  leaves. 

Number  lessons  may  be  based  on  the  trees  observed. 

The  teacher  may  think  of  other  ways  of  using  the  material  and 
ideas  gained  by  the  trip. 


143 

Flowers:  Learn  the  names  and  means  of  recognizing  some  of  the 
fall  flowers,  as  the  goldenrod,  aster,  geranium,  chrysanthemum. 

A  field  trip  might  be  made  to  study  the  fall  weeds  and  fall  flowers. 

Have  children  save  flower  seeds  and  plant  in  the  spring. 

Plant  peach  pits  and  apple  seeds,  after  preparing  a  place'  for  them 
on  the  school  grounds. 

School  Calendar. 

Have  a  school  calendar  on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  large  piece  of 
cardboard.  Have  children  observe  weather  conditions  and  fill  in  the 
calendar  daily  so  that  at  the  end  of  each  month  there  is  a  complete 
record  of  wind,  rain,  sunshine,  temperature,  etc. 

See  model  for  home  geography  under  discussion  of  that  subject. 

Place  a  weather  vane  on  the  school  building.  Have  the  children 
associate  the  state  of  the  weather  with  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Winter. 

Birds:  Name  birds  that  have  gone  since  fall  began.  Name  those 
which  remain. 

How  to  make  friends  with  the  birds.    Read  or  tell  bird  stories. 

Insects:  Where  have  they  gone?  How  will  they  get  here  again 
in  the  spring  ? 

Compare  the  winter  life  of  the  squirrel  and  the  rabbit. 

Plants:    Where  are  the  wild  flowers  now? 

Call  attention  to  the  house  plants  and  the  care  that  is  given  them. 

Can  you  notice  any  difference  in  the  buds  of  the  trees  as  winter 
goes  away  ?  Look  closely  for  changes. 

Study  the  winter  coats  of  buds,  especially  of  the  yellow  linden  tree 
and  the  hickory. 

Compare  length  of  day  and  night  in  fall  and  winter.  What  effects 
produced  ? 

Spring. 

Birds:  Find  out  the  names  of  the  newcomers.  Notice  what  they 
are  doing  and  tell  only  what  you  see. 

Watch  at  least  a  pair  of  birds  during  the  spring  and  summer  and 
tell  the  complete  story  of  what  you  see  them  do. 

Trees:    Note  changes  in  the  buds,  leaves,  etc. 

What  trees  leaf  first? 

Can  you  gather  and  preserve  the  seeds  of  the  elm,  the  willow,  the 
maple,  the  poplar? 

Watch  for  the  appearance  of  the  apple  and  peach  seedlings,  and 
care  for  them. 


144 

Plant  seeds  of  maple,  elm,  willow,  and  poplar  in  the  school  garden, 
and  care  for  them.  Note  the  kinds  of  soil  these  trees  grow  in,  and 
make  your  garden  soil  like  it. 

Seeds.1:  Sprouting  of  seeds  observed;  the  different  ways  the  seeds 
come  out' of  the  ground;  parts  of  seedlings  (roots,  stems,  leaves); 
uses  of  p&rts  of  plants. 

Plant  seeds  of  the  Lima  bean  and  the  nasturtium,  and  learn  how 
to  care  for  the  young  plants.  Try  to  raise  enough  seeds  for  the  chil- 
dren to  plant  next  year,  as  well  as  to  plant  in  the  home  garden. 

Arrange  to  care  for  the  garden  during  vacation. 

SECOND    GRADE. 
Fall. 

Birds:  Eecognition  and  names,  homes,  food  and  feeding  habits, 
sounds  or  calls;  enemies. 

What  new  names  can  you  add  to  the  list  of  birds  you  saw  since  last 
Spring  ? 

Can  you  tell  anything  new  about  the  habits  of  any  bird  you  have 
previously  observed? 

Will  you  find  out  all  you  can  about  the  partridge? 

Organize  a  "Bird  Club"  in  your  school. 

Insects:  Eecognition  and  name  of  cabbage  butterfly,  potato  beetle, 
rose  bug,  cricket,  grasshopper. 

Can  you  find  some  eggs  of  the  butterfly  and  watch  them  develop  ? 

Can  you  collect  some  caterpillars  and  watch  them  feed  and  develop  ? 

Can  you  collect  and  keep  some  cocoons  through  the  winter? 

See  Modern  English,  Book  One,  page  142,  Art.  158. 

Plants:  Can  you  add  some  new  fall  flowers  to  your  list  made  a 
year  ago? 

Examine  the  flowers  of  the  pumpkin,  the  red  clover,  the  sunflower, 
the  morning  glory,  the  aster,  and  tell  how  they  differ  from  the  flowers 
of  the  Lima  bean. 

Will  you  try  to  draw  them? 

Trees:  Can  you  tell  the  names  of  some  other  trees  you  have  learned 
to  know  since  last  year? 

We  will  try  to  learn  to  know  the  trees  by  means  of  their  buds,  out- 
line, and  bark  after  the  leaves  are  gone. 

Seeds:    Tell  some  ways  seeds  get  out  into  the  world. 

Can  you  name  some  seeds  that  use  wings  ?    Some  that  steal  rides  ? 

Work  to  Do :  Save  seeds  of  pumpkin,  morning  glory,  sunflower  and 
sweet  pea  to  plant  next  spring. 


145 

Plant  acorns  and  chestnuts  and  watch  development  in  the  Spring. 

Winter. 

Daily  observations  of  weather  recorded  in  class  calendar. 

Locate  north  by  noonday  shadow,  east  and  west  by  rising  and  set- 
ting of  sun. 

Difference  in  length  of  day  and  night  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year. 

Experimental  illustrations  of  freezing,  melting,  evaporation  - 

The  Sky:    What  it  is;  its  color;  its  shape. 

Preparation  of  the  garden  for  Spring. 

Feeding  and  protecting  the  birds. 

Lessons  on  kindness  to  animals. 

Spring. 

Birds:  Migratory  birds;  phoebe,  swallow,  robin,  bluebird,  black- 
oirYl,  catbird,  humming-bird,  scarlet  tanager,  oriole. 

Special  study  of  one  kind  of  bird. 

Protection  of  birds.     Birds  are  the  farmer's  friends. 

Make  a  study  of  the  hen,  as  to  breed,  color,  size,  uses  and  care. 

Plants:  Watch  for  the  spring  flowers  and  try  to  name  them  as 
they  appear. 

A  love  of  flowers  should  be  cultivated. 

Development  of  Bulbs:     Onion,  hyacinth,  tulip,  crocus. 

Bulbs  placed  in  moist  saw-dust,  soil  or  water;  observation  of  the 
development  of  roots,  stems  and  leaves. 

Animals:  Frog  or  toad;  development  from  egg.  Its  use  to  man. 
Its  protection.  Continue  the  observation  of  any  other  animal  previ- 
ously observed  in  which  the  children  are  interested,  as  the  horse  or 
cow. 

The  Soil:  Observe  the  effects  of  freezing  on  the  soil.  Running 
water.  Where  the  best  soil  is  found  and  why. 

The  need  of  good  soil  may  be  shown  by  cultivation  of  seedlings  or 
plants  in  saw-dust,  in  sand  and  in  rich  loam. 

Climate:  Xote  the  effects  of  the  length  of  the  day  on  the  tempera- 
ture. 

THIRD   GRADE. 
Fall. 

Birds:     Continue  the  study  as  time  permits. 

Recognition  and  name  of  the  resident  birds — woodpecker,  owl,  blue- 
jay,  crow,  wild  canary,  cardinal,  nuthatch,  etc. 


146 

Plants:  Study  of  how  the  farmer  selects  his  seeds  for  spring 
planting. 

How  seeds  are  protected  while  ripening ;  adaptation  for  dispersal  by 
wind,  water,  birds,  hairy  animals. 

Collection  of  dry  fruits  to  show  form  and  method  of  seed  dispersal. 

Field  Trip. 

Purpose:  To  observe,  study  and  collect  specimens  of  weeds  and 
dry  fruits. 

Note :  Take  also  the  larger  pupils,  and  have  them  keep  a  record 
of  the  weeds  examined. 

Things  to  Observe:  Where  the  greatest  variety  of  weeds  are  found, 
near  buildings  and  roads  or  in  the  open  fields?  Why?  Notice  the 
variety  of  ways  in  which  weeds  bear  their  seeds. 

Special  arrangement  of  plants  for  dispersal  of  seeds.  Does  one 
weed  produce  many  seeds'? 

What  effect  does  the  presence  of  many  weeds  have  on  the  yield  of 
corn? 

Will  weeds  of  a  certain  kind  be  more  plentiful  in  a  field  where 
crops  have  been  grown  year  after  year? 

Have  upper  grade  pupils  classify  weeds  according  to  their  length 
of  life. 

1.  Annuals  are  those  which  spring  from  seeds,  blossom,  fruit,  pro- 
duce seed  and  die  down  the  first  season  (as  the  ragweed). 

2.  Biennials  grow  the   first  season  without  blossoming,    usually 
storing  up  food  in  their  roots,  blossom  and  seed  the  following  season 
and  then  die  down  completely  (as  the  burdock  and  wild  carrot,  etc.) 

3.  Perennials  live  and  blossom  year  after  year.     (As  the  dande- 
lion, plantain,  etc.) 

Note:  Write  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for 
Farmer's  Bulletins,  No.  28,  "Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them;"  No.  86, 
^Thirty  Poisonous  Plants;"  No.  195,  "Annual  Flowering  Plants." 
Write  to  College  of  Agriculture,  Morgantown,  West  Virginia. 

Classify  weeds  according  to  ways  of  spreading  or  planting  their 
seeds;  that  is,  by  means  of  the  wind,  water,  animals,  mechanical  con- 
trivances or  artificial  means. 

The  Weather:  Note  the  changes  that  take  place  about  us  with  the 
coming  of  winter.  The  ways  that  we  prepare  for  winter.  Make  a  rec- 
ord of  the  thermometer  readings.  Continue  the  weather  calendar. 

Winter. 

Study  of  vegetables  in  the  store.  Know  what  is  in  the  home  mar- 
kets and  what  is  not  produced  at  home. 


147 

Transportation  of  products  and  disposition  of  them. 

Kinds  of  soil — clay,,  sand. 

A  study  of  trees  for  building  materials. 

Study  land  surfaces,  and  the  effects  of  weathering. 

Record  of  weather  observations. 

Life  and  habits  of  common  wild  animals  in  winter. 

Spring. 

Natural  Phenomena:     The  sun,  effects  of  heat  and  cold  on  water 
and  soil,  and  on  plant  and  animal  life ;  changes  of  seasons. 

Cultivation  of  Plants:    The  needs  of  plants.    Propagation  of  plants 
by  seeds,  by  slips.,  by  runners ;  growth  of  roots  of  slip  in  water. 

Experiments:     When  does  sap  ooze  through  stem  and  leaves?    Why 
do  leaves  wilt?     How  do  leaves  move  with  reference  to  light? 
How  do  leaves  move  with  reference  to  light? 

Recognition  and  name  of  trees,  plants  and  flowers. 

Plant  for  special  study:     Corn. 

Lesson  Plans. 

The  great  fault  of  formal  nature  study  has  been  indefiniteness,  no 
plan. 

A  lesson  plan  should  have  a  definite  aim  all  the  way  through  it. 
Three  questions  to  ask  in  preparing  a  lesson  plan: 

1.  Is  this  material  suitable? 

2.  How  is  this  plant  or  animal  to  take  care  of  itself? 

3.  How  does  it  affect  human  life  and  how  can  we  help  it  do  its 
work? 

4.  Any  interesting  point  not  brought  out  by  the  other  three. 
Below  are  given  some  lesson  plans  which  it  is  hoped  will  aid  the 

teacher  by  their  suggestions. 

The  Dog   (Second  Grade). 

Aim:     To  teach  sympathetic  interest  in  the  dog. 
Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Introductory  talks  about  each  child's  dog.    Kinds  of  dogs.  How 
can  you  tell?    Name  other  dogs. 

2.  What  have  you  seen  the  dog  do?     How  does  he  make  his  liv- 
ing?   How  does  he  help  us?    How  can  we  help  him? 

3.  Harm  some  dogs  do. 

4.  How  tell  a  sick  dog  from  a  well  dog? 


148 

5.     Tell  or  read  some  good  dog  story. 

The  Common  Toad. 

Aim:    To  see  the  toad  and  learn  of  its  human  interests. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

With  the  toad  before  the  class,  either  in  a  screened  box.  or  in  a 
tumbler  covered  with  netting — the  cage  filled  with  insects  of  all  sorts, 
talk  with  the  children  about  as  follows : 

1.  Do  we  like  pets  that  help  or  harm  us?  What  things  eat  our 
garden  vegetables? 

Wouldn't  a  pet  be  fine  that  would  eat  these  pests? 

Here  is  one.    Let  me  introduce  him  to  you. 

What  do  you  think  of  his  appearance? 

Look  at  his  eye.  Teach  children  that  toads  do  not  make  warts. 
Speak  of  his  value.  Observe  the  number  of  things  he  eats. 

How  can  we  help  the  toad?  Ex. — Build  a  toad  house  in  the  gar- 
den. 

Window  Gardens. 

Aim:  To  teach  how  to  make  and  to  find  pleasure  in  window 
gardens. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Teacher  should  prepare  a  box  to  fit  the  .window  sill.     Place  it 
upon  blocks  and  have  oil-cloth  under  it  to  prevent  water  from  dam- 
aging the  wood. 

2.  Place  coarse  stones,  sand  and  moss  in  the  bottom  to  about  1/4 
the  depth  of  the  box.    Fill  the  box  with  rich  sand  loam. 

3.  .  Plant  flower  seeds,  bulbs,  cuttings,  etc. 

4.  Water  every  day  and  keep  the  surface  loose. 

Brook  Studies   (Third  and  Fourth  Grades). 

Aim:    To  learn  the  nature  and  life  along  the  brook. 
Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

Several  excursions  may  be  made  to  a  brook,  each  time  with  one  or 
more  of  the  following  aims  : 

1.  Make  exact  measurements  of  length  and  width. 

2.  List  the  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  etc.,  by  and  in  the  brook. 

3.  Record  the  animal  life  seen  in  or  near. 

4.  Make  a  map  of  a  section  of  the  brook  and  land  near. 

5.  What  farms  or  home  grounds  touch  it? 


149 

6.  Changes  which  occur  in  its  course  from  time  to  time. 

7.  Land  it  drains,  its  source,  mouth,  tributaries. 

8.  Soils  along  its  course. 

9.  Its  value  to  any  one. 

The  Robin — (Third,  Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades). 
Aim :    To  see  and  to  learn  the  habits  and  value  of  the  robin. 
Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Go  out  with  the  class  and  sit  down  to  watch  the  robins. 

2.  Eecognize  the  robin  by  song  and  appearance. 

3.  Where  does  the  robin  like  to  be?    Why? 

4.  What  have  you  seen  the  robin  do  ? 

5.  When  does  it  sing  most?    Try  to  imitate  the  song. 

6.  Where  does  it  nest?    Out  of  what  is  the  nest  made?    Number 
and  color  of  eggs.    Find  a  nest  if  possible. 

7.  What  does  the  robin  eat?    Is  it  our  friend?    Why? 

8.  Can  the  robin  be  tamed  ?    How  can  we  help  the  robin  ? 

9.  What  are  the  robin's  enemies?    How  can  we  protect  it? 

10.  The  legend  of  the  "Bed-Breast." 

11.  Eefer  to  readers  for  robin  stories. 

The  Coddling  Moth  (Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades). 
Aim:     To  become  acquainted  with  the  moth  and  to  learn  of  its 
injurious  work. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Have  some  knotty  apples  for  the  class  and  show  the  worms  in 
these  apples.     Cause  the  children  to  understand  that  these  apples 
would  be  perfect  if  the  worms  had  not  got  into  them. 

2.  Tell  the  life  history  of  the  moth.     Ask  the  children  to  look 
behind  the  loose  bark  of  the  apple  trees  to  find  the  silken  pod  in 
which  the  larva  stays  during  the  winter. 

Lead  the  children  to  see  that  it  would  be  well  to  scrape  off  this 
loose  bark  in  winter  and  whitewash  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 

3.  How  many  have  seen  woodpeckers  picking  into  the  bark  of  the 
apple  tree  ? 

4.  Tell  of  the  work  of  spraying. 

Leaves  of  Common  Trees  (Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Grades). 

Aim:  To  learn  the  names  of  five  common  trees  as  distinguished 
by  leaves,  and  to  learn  what  leaves  are  for. 

Subject  Matter  and  Method: 

1.  Have  each  child  bring  leaves  from  five  different  trees  or  go  with 
the  children  to  gather  them. 


150 

2.  Have  children  fasten  the  leaves  on  a  sheet  of  paper  or  card- 
board and  write  the  names  of  the  leaves  below.     Classify  them  as  to 
shape,  size,  color,  and  margins. 

3.  Let  each  child  stand1  before  the  class  and  name  his  leaves  and 
tell  where  he  got  them. 

4.  After  becoming  familiar  with  the  five  leaves  ask : 
"What  does  the  leaf  do?" 

"What  are  the  leaves  good  for?" 
"What  becomes  of  them?" 

5.  Bead  some  simple  poems  about  leaves. 

6.  Drawing  lesson  on  leaves  may  follow. 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  GRADES. 
Fall. 

Note:  Nature  Study  and  Home  Geography  should  be  the  same 
course  in  the  fourth  grade.  Both  should  consist  of  observations. 

See  course  of  study  for  fourth  grade  geography. 

Plants:  Woody  plants;  industries  dependent  on  forests;  plants 
without  wood ;  useful  plant  products ;  protection  of  trees. 

Trees:  Uses  to  tree  of  bark,  of  wood,  and  of  pith;  annual  rings 
and  medullary  rays  (study  cross  and  long  sections  of  piece  of  wood) ; 
uses  of  heart  wood  and  sap  wood  to  plants  and  to  man ;  movements  of 
sap  (maple) ;  blossoming  and  fruit  formation  of  fruit  and  shade  trees; 
uses  of  wood  in  building  and  in  furniture  (collections)  ;  use  of  trees 
in  producing  rainfall. 

Emphasize  the  protection  and  planting  of  trees. 

Forms  of  Stems:  Erect,  prostrate,  climbing  by  tendrils,  twining  by 
stems  or  petiole;  why  plants  seek  erect  position;  underground  stems 
(potato)  and  bulbs  (onion)  ;  uses  of  stored  nourishment  to  plants. 

Plant  products  useful  to  man. 

Vegetables  classified  as  roots,  stems,  leaves,  bulbs  or  fruits. 

Fruits  classified  as  fleshy,  stone  and  dry. 

Medicines  and  Spices;  bark,  leaves,  sap,  extracts. 

Clothing;  cotton,  linen. 

Woods;  those  used  for  building,  or  furniture ;  characteristics  whi  ?h 
fit  them  for  such. 

Winter. 

Animals  useful  to  man;  birds,  bats,  toads,  frogs,  fish,  turtles,  lady- 
bugs,  beetles,  dragon-flies,  bees,  sheep,  cow,  goat,  ox,  horse,  donkey, 
mule,  etc. 


151 

Particular  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  their  value  to  man: 

(1)  As  destroyers  of  injurious  insects. 

(2)  As  the  source  of  supply  of  useful  materials,  including  mate- 
rials for  clothing,  food,  furniture  and  ornaments. 

(3)  As  beasts  of  burden. 

Animals  Harmful  to  Man. 

Cut-worm,  potato  beetle,  cabbage  worm,  leaf  rollers,  plant  lice, 
gypsy  moth,  coddling  moth,  beetles,  tent  caterpillars,  canker  worms, 
cloth  moths,  cockroach,  flies,  bedbugs,  ants,  mosquitoes,  snails,  slugs, 
rats,  mice,  etc. 

Particular  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  their  injuries  to  man; 
harmful  stages ;  extermination ;  work  of  the  government  in  destroying 
pest?. 

Field  Trip. 

Purpose:    To  study  how  soil  is  made. 

State  to  the  pupils  that  it  is  the  intention  to  take  a  field  excursion 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  how  soils  are  made,  and  that  the  field 
trip  will  be  along  the  bed  of  a  little  stream  or  creek,  starting  in  the 
lower  valley  and  following  the  stream  towards  its  source  on  higher 
ground. 

Have  pupils  take  tablet  or  note  book  and  copy  the  following  as  it 
is  written  on  the  blackboard. 

Things  to  Observe. 

Where  (near  the  source  or  toward  the  mouth)  do  you  find  the  bed 
of  the  stream  covered  mostly  with  sand  ?  Where  mostly  with  rounded 
rocks  or  gravel?  Where  mostly  with  large  flat  jagged  rocks? 

Notice  holes  or  grooves  worn  in  rocks. 

Try  to  find  rocks  which  have  been  split  open  by  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing. 

Look  for  roots  of  trees  which  have  grown  in  rock  crevices  and  have 
split  them  open.  Find  stones  that  are  covered  with  mosses  and  lich- 
ens. Have  the  pupils  scrape  off  the  lichens  from  the  rock  and  note 
the  dissolving  effect  which  the  roots  have  had  upon  the  rock's  sur- 
face. 

Notice  places  where  roots  or  sods  have  kept  the  soil  from  washing 
away. 

Have  some  of  the  boys  collect  samples,  (1)  of  the  rounded-off  stones 
or  gravel,  (2)  a  sample  of  sand,  (3)  sample  of  the  extremely  fine  sand 


152 

mixed  with  decayed  leaves,  etc.,  or  ordinary  mud,  (4)  samples  of  the 
different  soils  found  on  the  trip. 

Keep  the  pupils  near  you  on  the  trip  and  when  the  stream  is 
reached  proceed  rather  slowly  up  stream  in  order  to  observe  closely. 

By  judicious  questioning  draw  attention  to  the  points  which  are  to 
be  observed,  always  giving  opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  make  the 
discoveries  themselves  if  possible. 

As  each  point  is  noted  have  the  pupils  check  it  off  on  their  list  of 
things  to  be  observed. 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  as  the  walk  proceeds  or  may 
be  saved  until  the  following  day : 

1.  What  means  do  farmers  employ  to  prevent  their  hillside  fields 
from  being  washed  ? 

2.  Do  trees  and  grass-covered  hills  wash  as  badly  as  bare  culti- 
vated hills?    Why? 

3.  Name  all  the  ways  in  which  nature  has  broken  the  rocks  down 
into  fine  sand. 

4.  Does  very  fine  sand  make  good  soil?     What  must  be  mixed 
with  it  before  it  is  good  soil? 

5.  What  must  be  mixed  with  clay  soil  to  make  a  loam  soil  ? 
Upon  returning  to  the  school  house  the  specimens  may  be  labeled 

and  placed  upon  the  specimen  shelf. 

The  language  lesson  for  the  following  day  may  consist  of  compo- 
sitions on  either  "Our  Walk  Along  the  Stream,"  or  "How  Soil  is 
Formed,"  and  the  various  points  observed  during  the  trip  must  be 
spoken  of  in  the  composition. 

The  compositions  may  be  made  into  booklet  form  with  attractive 
covers  and  perhaps  illustrated  with  pasted  clippings  from  papers  or 
magazines.  When  so  prepared  they  make  very  attractive  exhibit  ma- 
terial. 

Spring. 

The  School  and  Home  Garden. 

The  school  garden  is  the  laboratory  of  nature  study.  In  it  almost 
every  phase  of  nature  study  can  find  a  place.  It  may  be  made  a  source 
of  delight  to  the  pupils. 

The  next  best  thing  is  to  have  the  home  garden.  It  is  possible  in 
every  school  if  the  school  lasts  till  April.  Have  the  children  go  home 
and  make  the  same  kind  of  garden  as  at  school.  It  may  be  on  a 
larger  scale. 

The  teacher  should  go  to  the  homes  and  see  them. 


153 

Reward  those  who  have  the  best  gardens. 

Many  idle  children  might  be  kept  busy  and  happy  at  home  in 
the  garden. 

Children  should  be  taught  to  garden.  When  grown  they  will  have 
the  garden  habit, 

There  can  be  no  objection  made  to  the  garden  from  the  stand- 
point of  health,  finance,  harmony,  or  pleasure. 

Organize  corn  and  tomato  clubs,  and  prepare  to  have  the  work  car- 
ried out  among  the  boys  and  girls  during  the  summer. 

Prepare  for  a  garden  exhibit  at  the  beginning  of  school  next  fall. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 
Plants. 

Subject  matter  and  method:  The  plants  of  the  farm  are  grains, 
grasses,  tubers,  roots,  legumes,  fruit  trees,  vegetables,  timber  trees, 
medicinal  plants,  fiber  plants,  and  stimulant  plants.  Study  each  as 
to  (1)  identification  of  seed;  (2)  where  the  plant  is  found;  (3) 
the  cultivation;  (4)  uses  to  man  and  the  processes  by  which  it  is 
made  useful  to  man;  (5)  its  relation  to  the  soil;  (6)  its  relation 
to  climate;  (7)  whether  an  annual,  biennial  or  perennial;  (8)  the 
approximate  cost  of  production. 

Conditions  Necessary  to  Plant  Growth. 

A  plant  to  do  its  best  must  have  (1)  air;  (2)  water;  (3)  soil 
which  contains  the  proper  chemical  elements;  (4)  cultivation;  (5) 
proper  drainage.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  best  methods  of  bring- 
ing about  the  above  conditions. 

Plant  Foods.  The  plant  obtains  its  food  from  the  air,  soil,  and 
water.  The  leaves  of  plants  are  provided  with  very  small  openings, 
or  pores,  which  serve  as  air  passages.  Through  these  openings  the 
plant  takes  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  throws  off  oxygen.  A  small  cell 
called  a  guard  cell  surrounds  each  breathing  pore.  These  prevent 
the  escape  of  an  undue  amount  of  moisture.  Nitrogen  does  not  enter 
the  plant  through  the  leaves,  but  is  taken  up  by  the  roots.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  important  plant  foods  and  is  necessary  to  -all  plant  growth. 
The  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  differs  in  different  places.  In  a 
humid  climate  the  largest  amount  is  found  within  six  to  twelve  inches 
of  the  surface.  Land  upon  which  several  crops  of  wheat  have  been 
raised  in  succession  lacks  a  sufficient  amount  of  nitrogen  and  we  speak 
of  the  land  as  run  down.  Nitrogen  can  be  brought  into  the  soil  through 
decaying  organic  matter,  through  rains,  and  by  meana  of  leguminous 


plants.  Upon  the  roots  of  certain  plants,  called  legumes,  there  are 
small  organisms  which  bring  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  soil  and  air  into 
contact  with  the  roots  of  the  plant.  Every  plant  must  have  certain 
elements  found  in  the  soil.  Potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  iron,  nitrogen,  and  chlorine  exist  in  the  soil  in  dif- 
ferent proportions.  Water  acts  as  food  itself,  dissolves  other  foods, 
and  carries  them  to  the  places  where  they  are  needed.  To  do  this  a 
large  amount  of  water  is  necessary.  The  surplus  is  given  off  through 
the  leaves.  Wet  grass  in  the  morning  is  often  due  to  the  moisture 
given  off  by  the  grass  rather  than  the  fall  of  dew.  The  plant  takes 
the  materials  which  it  obtains  from  the  soil  and  the  air  and  makes 
them  into  starch,  sugar,  oil,  protein,  cellulose,  the  elements  of  the 
plant. 

When  we  burn  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  stove  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
oxygen,  water  and  nitrogen  pass  off  into  the  atmosphere,  while  the 
mineral  matter  remains  as  ashes.  For  exercises  on  plant  foods,  see 
Bulletin  195,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Morgantown,  W.  Va. 

Plants  and  Animals  Compared. 

In  the  lower  forms  of  life  it  is  difficult  to  tell  which  is  plant  life 
and  which  is  animal  life.  In  the  higher  forms  we  have  no  difficulty 
in  noting  a  few  chief  differences.  The  animal  takes  in  oxygen  and 
breathes  out  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  plant  takes  in  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  breathes  out  oxygen.  The  animal  can  move  about  while  the  plant 
is  stationary.  The  animal  lives  upon  organized  material  while  the 
plant  lives  upon  unorganized  matter  and  makes  it  into  organized 
material. 

It  is  clear  from  our  previous  study  that  both  plants  and  animals 
will  live,  reproduce  and  thrive  better  under  certain  conditions  than 
under  -others.  Indicate  on  the  map  the  parts  of  the  state  which  are 
the  most. suited  to  the  best  production  of  animal  and  plant  life. 
State  reasons  why  you  select  certain  parts  of  the  state  as  better 
adapted  to  animal  production  than  others. 

The  Home. 

The  work  on  the  home  is  introduced  thus  early  in  the  course  for 
the  purpose  of  stimulating  an  interest  in  beautiful  surroundings. 
Teach  that  the  essentials  of  a  good  home  are,  (1)  its  location  as  to 
a  market;  (2)  healthful  surroundings;  (3)  a  house  well  ventilated 
from  cellar  to  garret;  (4)  scientific  plumbing;  (5)  an  abundance  of 
sunlight;  (6)  good  books,  papers  and  magazines;  (7)  convenience 
in  the. arrangement  of  rooms;  (8)  cleanliness;  (9)  modern  conveni- 


155 

ences,  as  bath  rooms,  electric  bells,  and  telephone;   (10)   an  outside 
appearance  in  keeping  with  the  inside. 

Corn  Contests. 

Every  boy  in  the  neighborhood,  over  thirteen  years  of  age,  should 
be  induced  to  enter  a  corn  growing  contest.  The  boys  should  do  all 
the  work  of  preparing  the  soil,  planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting. 
Near  the  last  of  October  have  the  different  boys  bring  to  school  five  of 
the  best  ears  grown.  A  competent  judge  should  be  selected  who  will 
award  the  prizes.  A  neatly  written  essay  describing  the  work  done 
should  accompany  each  boy's  samples.  The  essays  and  samples  of 
corn  should  become  the  property  of  the  school.  The  following  year 
the  best  ears  of  corn  can  be  used  for  seed  in  the  next  contest. 

References. 

The  following  selections  from  the  Jones'  Headers  will  be  helpful 
in  connection  with  nature  study  and  kindness  to  animals. 
Book  III: 

What  Mrs.  Squirrel  Thinks,    p.  24. 
Spring,     p.  26. 
Frank  and  the  Snail,    p.  28. 
Don  and  the  Mirror,    p.  32. 
A  Strange  Pet.    p.  35. 
The  Flower's  Thanks,    p.  54. 
The  Robin  and  The  Voice,    p.  67. 
Lions,    p.  70. 
A  Queer  Dinner,    p.  77. 
The  Tree.    p.  81. 

Two  Bright  Little  Squirrels,     p.  83. 
The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal.    p.  110. 
The  Clouds,    p.  115. 
Born  in  Prison,    p.  120. 
How  Morning-Glory  Climbed,     p.  125. 
A  Child  to  a  Rose.    p.  156. 
The  King  of  Birds,    p.  187. 
Petition  of  the  Song  Birds,    p.  234. 
Bergetta's  Misfortune,    p.  254. 
Book  IV: 

Experiences  of  a  Caterpillar,     p.  50. 
The  Bees.    p.  69. 
The  Baby  Owl.    p.  90. 


156 

Rain  in  Summer,    p.  98. 
A  Bird's  Nest.    p.  114. 
Professor  Frog's  Lecture,     p.  116. 
Spiders  and  Their  Homes,    p.  153. 
The  Gladness  of  Nature,    p.  263. 
Book  V: 

Our  Friend  the  Cat.  p.  77. 
Winter  Neighbors,  p.  142. 
The  Woodpecker,  p.  148. 


AGRICULTURE 


SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES. 

General  Statement. 

This  course  in  agriculture  is  based  upon  a  few  main  topics  which 
come  within  the  experience  of  the  pupil.  The  textbook  should  be 
used  as  a  guide.  Exercises,  projects,  contests,  field  excursions,  book- 
lets and  supplementary  data  are  the  real  agents  for  teaching  this- 
subject. 

Note  Book. 

The  note  book  here  described  should  be  used  for  general  notes  and 
is  not  a  part  of  the  agricultural  booklet  which  deals  with  special  sub- 
jects. A  five-or  ten-cent  book  is  suitable.  It  is  used  for  keeping  a 
record  of  things  observed,  questions  investigated,  experiments,  field 
trips  and  supplementary  information  given  by  the  teacher.  Each 
day's  work  should  be  preceded  by  the  date  and  the  name  of  the  sub- 
ject. If  an  experiment  is  conducted,  the  materials  used  should  be 
described ;  the  method  of  procedure  stated ;  the  observations  listed ; 
and  the  final  conclusion  drawn.  Experiments  should  always  precede 
the  subject  matter  of  the  text.  Pictures  or  drawings  will  make  the 
record  more  complete. 

The  note  books  should  be  carefully  read  and  graded  by  the  teacher. 
Make  them  supplementary  English  or  language  lessons. 

Agricultural  Booklet, 

The  agricultural  booklet  is  the  one  most  important  agent  in  the 
successful  teaching  of  agriculture.  This. applies  equally  to  the  com- 
mon school  and  the  high  school.  It  correlates  the  work  in  agricul- 
ture with  a  greater  number  of  subjects  than  any  other  device  that  has 
yet  been  invented.  In  brief,  it  encourages  supplementary  reading; 
teaches  the  correct  use  of  English;  better  penmanship;  trains  in  neat- 
ness; develops  originality;  encourages  investigations  and  brings  the 
home,  school  and  farm  into  a  closer  co-operation.  Pupils  respond 
readily  to  this  method  of  instruction.  They  take  a  pride  in  making: 
their  booklets  neat  and  attractive.  In  brief,  it  is  live  and  up-to-date 
agriculture.. 


158 

Directions  For  Making  Booklet. 

1.  Determine  early  in  the  year  the  subjects  you  are  going  to 
teach. 

2.  Consult  the  list  of  Farmers'  Bulletins,  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege Bulletins,  and  *write  to  several  of  the  State  Experiment  Stations 
for  a  list  of  their  publications.    A  list  of  these  stations  will  be  found 
on  page  312  of  Soule  and  Turpin's  Agriculture,  or  will  be  supplied 
by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

3.  A  uniform  paper  about  9"xl2",  that  will  take  ink,  should  be 
selected. 

4.  Follow  an  outline  of  study  in  writing  up  topics.     Paragraph 
headings  and  chapters  should  be  indicated. 

5.  One  page  should  not  have  more  than  two  illustrations  and  fre- 
quently one  is  sufficient.     Illustrations  should  be  placed  where  they 
are  most  effective.     They  should  always  help  to  make  the  subject 
matter  clear. 

6.  Illustrations  may  be  taken  from  bulletins,  farm  journals,  cata- 
logues, newspapers  or  may  be  original  drawings. 

7.  Information  should  be  obtained  through  observation,   experi- 
ments, local  people,  bulletins,  farm,  journals,  text-books  and  class 
discussions. 

8.  No  material  should  go  into  the  booklet  that  is  not  thoroughly 
understood.     Do  not  permit  copying,  which  is.  so  frequently  done  in 
writing  essays.     Short  quotations  are  sometimes  in  order. 

9.  A  booklet  may  accompany  the  class  study  or  it  may  serve  as 
a  laboratory  exercise  where  there  is  little  equipment  for  laboratory 
work. 

10.  Notes  should  be  written  up,  corrected  by  the  teacher,  copied 
and  transferred  to  the  booklet. 

11.  The  cover  should  be  of  a  heavier  paper,  neatly  illustrated, 
and  should  bear  the  name  of  the  pupil  and  the  date. 

12.  The  first  inside  page  should  be  blank  except  for  the  name  of 
the  study,  which  should  be  in  the  middle  of  the  page. 

13.  The  second  page  should  be  the  index  page. 

14.  Pages  should  be  numbered  in  the  upper  right  hand  corner. 

15.  Tie  the  pages  together  with  a  cord  or  ribbon. 

16.  After  the  booklets  have  been  examined  by  the  parents,  they 
should  be  kept  on  exhibition  at  the  school. 

17.  Local  prizes  will  add  interest. 

The  booklet  is  an  intensive  study  of  one  subject  and  should  not 
be  attempted  with  every  subject  which  is  studied.     In  each  com- 


159 

munity,  one  agricultural  interest  predominates.  It  will  be  well  to 
make  a  more  intensive  study  of  this  interest.  The  booklet  is  one  of 
the  ways. 

Bulletin   Board. 

The  agricultural  bulletin  board  is  one  of  the  effective  ways  of 
bringing  agricultural  information  before  children  or  older  pupils. 
The  blackboard  space  in  most  schools  is  rather  limited  and  needed 
for  the  daily  work.  Select  a  part  of  tfie  school  room  which  is  easily 
accessible  and  cover  it  with  burlap  or  thick  cloth.  Whenever  pictures 
or  clippings  are  found,  which  are  of  interest,  they  should  be  pinned 
on  the  bulletin  board  and  attention  called  to  them.  The  data  given 
may  frequently  be  used  for  the  opening  exercises.  Children  should 
be  urged  to  bring  such  data  to  school.  Two  brackets  with  a  board  on 
top  will  make  a  suitable  shelf  to  be  placed  underneath.  Farm  bulle- 
tins, papers,  and  books  can  be  kept  here.  A  teacher  should  subscribe 
for  at  least  one  farm  journal.  The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  sends  out  each  month  a  list  of  the  previous 
month's  publications.  Teachers  should  see  that  their  names  are  on 
the  mailing  list.  Also  have  your  name  on  the  mailing  list  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College.  Make  your  bulletin  board  reflect  the 
work  of  your  school. 

Collections. 

Make  collections  of  soils,  fertilizers,  grasses,  cereals,  weeds,  photo-  ' 
.graphs,  designs,  plans,  catalogues,  bulletins  and  farm  journals  for 
use  during  the  school  year. 

Correlation. 

Correlate  agriculture  with  the  other  subjects  of  your  school  and 
"thus  vitalize  the  entire  school  work.  Send  to  the  IT.  S.  Department 
•of  Agriculture  for  several  copies  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  dealing  with 
phases  of  agriculture  which  are  discussed  in  your  text.  Use  these  for 
supplementary  reading.  Make  the  reading  lesson  an  informational 
lesson  as  well  as  an  exercise  in  developing  the  ability  to  read.  Explain 
.and  discuss  the  subject  matter.  Apply  your  arithmetic  instruction 
to  the  actual  problems  of  everyday  life.  Oral  and  written  reports  of 
field  trips  and  discussions  of  community  activities  constitute  live  lan- 
.guage  lessons.  Apply  the  principles  of  grammar  to  activities  which 
.later  demand  the  use  of  grammar. 


160 

Preliminary  School  Exercises. 

The  success  of  your  work  in  agriculture  will  be  judged  by  its 
results.  Instruction  which  ends  in  the  school  room  is  of  little  value. 
The  criticism  is  often  made  that  students  are  unable  to  carry  out 
the  instruction  which  they  have  received.  As  a  result  the  entire  work 
in  agriculture  is  judged  a  failure.  It  is  put  down  as  another  school 
fad.  No  criticism  is  more  unjust  or  more  injurious  than  this  one. 
If  proper  precaution  is  taken,  it  can  be  avoided.  No  outside  demon- 
stration should  be  undertaken  until  it  is  preceded  by  careful  school 
room  instruction.  For  instance,  if  an  exercise  in  grafting  is  to  be 
successfully  conducted,  it  should  be  preceded  by  several  class  exer- 
cises. Grafting  wax  should  be  prepared  and  several  grafts  made  on 
pieces  of  wood  which  are  brought  to  the  school  room.  Experiment 
until  the  process  is  thoroughly  understood.  Before  outside  pruning 
is  done,  several  different  shaped  trees  should  be  pruned  in  the  school 
room.  Consult  pictures  of  trees  which  are  pruned  properly  and  im- 
properly. Experiment  upon  trees  along  the  roadside.  Experience 
makes  perfect.  Plans  for  laying  out  the  school  grounds,  home  gar- 
dens and  crop  rotations  should  be  carefully  worked  out  on  paper. 
Sketch  hot  beds,  buildings,  etc.,  according  to  scale.  Treat  seed  grain 
for  smut,  and  potatoes  for  scab.  Give  exercises  in  selecting  seed  pota- 
toes and  cutting  them  for  seed.  In  brief,  make  certain  that  the  prin- 
ciple is  understood  and  that  it  can  be  applied. 

Contests. 

The  contests  mentioned  below  are  for  immediate  use  in  the  schools. 
Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  Work  and  the  many  other  contests  extending 
over  long  periods  of  time  are  not  considered.  Agricultural  booklets, 
debates,  rope  tying,  accuracy  in  judging  types  of  soil,  different  kinds 
of  wood  and  lumber,  grading  grain,  stock  judging,  making  drawings 
of  farms  and  farm  buildings,  obtaining  agricultural  data,  etc.,  are 
subjects  for  contests.  Quickness  in  tying  knots  is  interesting  and 
instructive.  Write  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  College,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  for  Extension  Bulletin  No.  33,  Eope  Tying.  The  Iowa  Agri- 
cultural College,  Ames,  Iowa,  has  published  a  similar  bulletin. 

The   Text-hook. 

The  textbook  is  simply  a  guide.  It  supplies  •  supplementary  data 
to  be  used  in  making  an  intensive  study  of  those  phases  of  agriculture 
which  apply  to  local  conditions.  Cotton,  rice,  hemp  and  sugar  cane 
are  not  grown  in  this  state  and  should  receive  but  little  attention. 
Place  little  emphasis  upon  textbook  assignments.  Do  not  attempt  to 


161 

follow  the  order  of  subjects  given  in  the  text.  Fall  is  the  season  to 
study  corn,  ripening  fruits,  and  vegetables.  The  winter  season  is 
the  time  to  study  domestic  animals  and  prepare  for  the  spring  work 
on  cereals.  Naturally  the  soil  and  its  preparation  are  closely  related 
to  the  successful  production  of  farm  crops.  Soil  study  should,  there- 
fore, just  precede  cereals.  A  few  subjects  carefully  studied  are  of 
infinitely  more  value  than  a  superficial  study  of  many. 

Home  and  Community  Projects. 

Practical  instruction  in  agriculture  finds  its  expression  in  the  home 
and  community.  In  brief,  it  serves  immediate  ends.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  school  year,  each  pupil  should  be  required  to  choose  one 
or  more  projects  as  a  part  of  his  work  in  agriculture.  Outlines  of 
these  projects  will  be  supplied  by  the  Supervisor  of  Agriculture. 

Bulletins. 

In  addition  to  the  bulletins  published  by  the  West  Virginia  College 
of  Agriculture,  the  following  bulletins  published  by  the  "United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  are  suitable  for  West 
Virginia  conditions : 

Corn— Nos.  229,  409,  414,  257,  253,  and  415;  wheat— Nos.  250, 
82,  118,  129,  165;  oats— Nos.  67,  97,  138  and  Circular  88;  legumesr— 
Nos.  339,  318,  315,  278,  and  260;  tobacco— No<s.  82,  83,  and  143; 
cotton— No.  36;  potatoes— Nos.  35,  149,  244,  and  365;  fertilizers— 
Nos.  44,  192,  222,  and  225;  orchards— Nos.  87,  113,  154,  181,  198, 
283,  and  293;  garden— Nos.  54,  255,  and  218;  weeds— Nos.  28,  86, 
and  188;  insects — Nos.  99,  127,  155,  247,  and  146;  cattle — Nos,  22, 
63,  .55,  106,  166,  141,  73,  and  32;  horses— Nos.  170  and  179;  hogs— 
Nos.  100,  183,  205,  and  272;  sheep— Nos.  96  and  49;  poultry— Nos, 
41,  51,  128,  141,  236,  287,  64,  and  200;  bees— Nos.  47  and  59;  birds 
-No.  54;  farm  management— Nos.  242,  280,  210,  62,  95,  126,  and 

155. 

Soil. 

All  life,  whether  plant  or  animal,  is  dependent  upon  the  soil. 
Someone,  has  said  that  the  prosperity  of  any  nation  depends  directly 
upon  the  fertility  of  its  soil.  We  select  this  subject  as  one  of  the 
first  to  be  taught  in  the  fall.  Certain  phases  can  more  easily  be 
taught  in  the  spring  when  farmers  are  more  actively  engaged  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil. 
Teach:  :,  ;;i 

1.     The  kinds  of  soil— as  sandy,  clay,  loam  and  limestone. 


162 

2.  How  and  from  what  each  of  these  soils  is  derived. 

3.  Composition  as  to  the  different  materials  which  are  found  in 
a  soil. 

4.  Uses  of  soil — as  (a)  attachment  for  plants,  (b)  to  supply  plant 
food,  and  moisture. 

5.  How  certain  soils  are  adapted  to  certain  plants. 

6.  Water  in  the  soil.    Its  function  is  (a)  to  dissolve  materials  in 
the  soil  so  that  they  can  be  taken  up  by  the  plant,  (b)  to  furnish 
water  for  the  plant  and  carry  the  food  where  it  is  needed,  (c)  it  helps 
in  chemical  processes. 

7.  What  makes  a  soil  "heavy"  or  "light"  ? 

8.  How  soil  may  be  improved  by  the  use  of  manure,  commercial 
fertilizers,   drainage,   rotation    of   crops    and    growing    leguminous 
plants. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  tillage  and  the  different  kinds  of  tillage — 
such  as  general  tillage,  intertillage,  shallow  and  deep  tillage? 

10.  The  purpose  of  tillage;  (a)  to  loosen  the  soil  particles,   (b) 
to  conserve  moisture,  (c)  to  dry  the  soil  by  exposing  it  to  the  atmos- 
phere, (d)  to  destroy  weeds,  (e)  to  bring  plant  food  in  touch  with 
the  young  roots,  (f )  to  form  a  suitable  seed  bed. 

11.  Tools  used  in  tillage  and  the  cost  of  each. 

12.  The  value  of  good  tools  and  the  necessity  of  proper  care. 
Exercises:     Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  to  the  school  room  as  many 

different  kinds  of  soils  ,as  can  be  obtained  in  the  locality.  Classify 
them  as  stated  above.  Examine  them  as  to  their  rock  particles  and 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  Tie  a  cloth  over  the  upper  end  of  a  lamp 
chimney;  fill  the  chimney  two-thirds  full  of  one  soil  and  pour  in 
some  water.  Note  how  long  it  takes  for  the  water  to  reach  the  bot- 
tom. Do  the  same  with  the  different  kinds  of  soil.  Conclusion. 
Show  that,  by  filling  a  lamp  chimney  full  of  soil  and  setting  it  in  a 
basin  of  water,  different  soils  will  absorb  different  amounts  of  water. 
Do  the  same  with  different  soils.  Measure  in  each  case  the  amount 
of  water  used.  Plant  seeds  in  the  different  kinds  of  soils  and  note 
the  growth  of  the  young  plants.  Show  that  soil  must  have  heat, 
light,  and  moisture  to  produce  growth.  Test  soils  with  litmus  paper. 

Farm  Crops. 

Corn. 
Teach : 

1.     History.     Corn  was  first  found  growing  in  America.     Mexico 
is  probably  its  native  home.     The  early  settlers  found  it  growing  in 


various  parts  of  North  America.     The  Indians  knew  its  value  and 
grew  it  extensively. 

2.  Classification.     There  are  six  races  of  corn — dent,  flint,  pop, 
sugar,  soft,  and  pod. 

3.  Characteristics  of  each  race. 

4.  The  varieties  best  adapted  to  West  Virginia. 

5.  Production.      The    United    States    produces   about    2,500,000 
bushels.     The  average  yield  is  24  bushels  per  acre.     The  corn  states 
are  Illinois,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Missouri. 

6.  Cultivation.     Plowing,  harrowing,  planting,  hoeing,  and  har- 
vesting. 

7.  Selecting  and  testing  seed  corn. 

8.  Uses  of  corn — (a)  food  for  live  stock,   (b)   human  food,   (c) 
kinds  of  leaves,   (d)  flowers,  (e)  number  of  ears. 

Exercises :  Visit  a  corn  field  and  note  the  number  of  ears  on  a 
stalk.  Select  ears  suitable  for  seed.  Use  West  Virginia  School  Agri- 
culture on  Corn.  Test  kernels  for  germination.  Judge  corn  accord- 
ing to  the  following  points: 


1.  Trueness  to  type  10     6. 

2.  Ear   35 

a.  Shape   (10) 

b.  Length   (10) 

c.  Circumference   (5) 

d.  Weight   (10) 

3.  Eows    10 

a.  Number  7. 

b.  Space  between  rows 

c.  Space  between  kernels 

4.  Butt    5     8. 

a.  Size  as  compared 

with  entire  ear 

b.  How  filled 

5.  Tip    5 

a.  Space  between  tip  kernels 

b.  How  filled  • 


Kernel  15 

a.  Length 

b.  Shape 

c.  Dented  or  smooth 

d.  Uniformity 

e.  Number  of  kernels 

f.  Total  weight 

Color 10 

a.  Grain 

b.  Cob 

Cob   10 

a.  Circumference 

b.  Rigidity 

c.  Weight 


Total 100 


Name  of  Pupil 


104 

Wheat. 

Study  wheat  in  the  same  way  you  studied  corn. 
Examination  Card: 

1.  Variety. 

2.  Trueness  to  type. 

3.  Spike. 

a.  Bearded  or  smooth. 

b.  Length. 

c.  Shape. 

d.  Color. 

e.  Number  of  spikelets. 

f.  Arrangement  of  spikelets. 

g.  Number  of  fertile  spikelets. 

4.  Kernel. 

a.  Texture. 

b.  Number  of  damaged  kernels. 

c.  Weight  of  100  kernels. 

d.  Germination  test. 

5.  Stem. 

a.  Length. 

b.  '  Number  of  nodes. 

c.  Number  of  leaves. 

6.  Root  system. 

a.  Kind. 

b.  Length. 

c.  Length  determined  by  what? 
Other  cereals  may  be  studied  in  the  same  way. 

The  Leguminous  Plants. 

The  legumes  include  clover,  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  cow  peas,  velvet 
beans  and  vetch.  The  most  important  of  these  are  clover  and  alfalfa. 
They  are  of  great  value  to  the  farmers,  as  they  enrich  the  soil  by 
depositing  nitrogen  therein.  The  value  of  alfalfa  as  a  forage  crop 
cannot  be  overestimated.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  ton  of 
alfalfa  hay  contains  as  much  food  value  as  a  ton  of  wheat  bran ;  also 
that  an  acre  of  alfalfa  will  produce  more  digestible  food  than  an 
acre  of  any  other  farm  crop,  including  shelled  corn  and  corn  silage. 
The  above  facts  are  cited  to  illustrate  the  necessity  of  instruction 
along  the  lines  of  alfalfa  cultivation.  The  West  Virginia  Farm  Bul- 
letin, Vol.  I,  No.  4,  will  be  sent  to  teachers  upon  application. 
Teach: 

1.     The  meaning  of  the  terms  leguminous,  bacteria,  nodules,  and 
ferment. 


165 

• 

2.  The  more  important  leguminous  plants  and  their  characteris- 
tics. 

3.  The  necessity  of  growing  alfalfa  in  West  Virginia, 

a.  Soil  requirements. 

b.  Inoculation. 

c.  Seeding. 

d.  Cutting  and  curing  alfalfa. 

Exercises :  Have  the  pupils  bring  to  school  plants  showing  nod- 
ules. Study  them  as  to  size  and  shape.  Explain  that  the  nodules 
contain  bacteria  which  take  the  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  through 
a  chemical  change  render  it  available  as  plant  food.  Discuss  the 
yeast  bacteria,  vinegar,  sour  milk,  and  cheese  ferments.  Plant  seeds 
in  soil  that  has  been  inoculated  and  in  soil  that  has  not  been  inocu- 
lated. Conclusions. 

Farm   Animals. 

The  farm  animals — cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  horses  and  poultry — should 
be  studied  during  the  winter  months.  The  following  outline  for 
the  study  of  cattle  is  suggestive  for  the  study  of  the  other  farm 
animals. 

Cattle. 

Classification.    There  are  three  classes : 

a.  Beef — Shorthorn,    Aberdeen    Angus,    Durham,    Hereford   and 

Galloway. 

b.  Dairy — Jersey,     Guernsey,     Holstein,     Ayreshire    and    Brown 

Swiss. 

.  c.     Dual  Purposes — Devon,  Eed  Polled  and  Brown  Swiss. 
Characteristics  of  each : 

a.  Beef  Animals.     Such  an  animal  should  be  well  developed  in 
loin,  back,  thighs  and  rump.    Smooth  outlines,  short,  stout  legs,  with 
a  broad  back.     Fine  hair,  pliable  skin  and  small  bones. 

b.  Dairy  Animals.     The  dairy  cow  has  a  large  stomach,  udder 
is  wide  and  full,  milk  veins  large  and  branching.     When  looked  at 
from  the  front,  the  animal  has  a  wedge  shape.     The  hip  bones  are 
prominent,  neck  small,  head  small,  skin  clear,  hair  fine  and  soft. 
Such  an  animal  must  produce  at  least  250  pounds  of  butter  per  year. 

c.  Dual  Purpose  Animals.    These  animals  are  used  for  both  beef 
and  dairy  purposes.  They  should  have  some  of  the  most  marked  char- 
acteristics of  the  other  two.     For  the  small  farm    these    are    well 
adapted. 


166 

Topics  for  Study:  Each  of  the  above  named  beef,  dairy  and  dual 
purpose  breeds  should  be  taken  up  in  the  following  manner:  (a) 
origin  and  history;  (b)  appearance;  (c)  adaptability  to  the  state; 
(d)  milking  and  beef  qualities;  (e)  other  interesting  points.  Visit 
a  farm,  if  possible,  where  cattle  may  be  judged  according  to  the  above 
points.  Milking,  cleanliness  about  the  barn,  pails,  churn,  quantity 
and  quality  of  milk  from  different  cows  compared,  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

Exercises:  Make  a  special  study  of  the  dairy  cow  as  outlined  in 
West  Virginia  School  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV,  No.  4,  and  the  accom- 
panying chart.  Make  an  animal  survey  of  the  neighborhood.  Out- 
lines for  this  survey  will  be  supplied  by  the  Supervisor  of  Agricul- 
ture. Have  pupils  figure  out  the  cost  of  keeping  and  feeding  a  steer ; 
the  same  in  rearing  a  calf.  Compute  the  profit  in  raising  a  hog. 
Have  pupils  visit  a  hog-butchering  and  write  compositions  describing 
what  they  saw.  Have  each  pupil  describe  how  milk  and  butter  are 
handled  at  home.  Emphasize  the  necessity  of  keeping  milk  free  from 
bacteria.  Test  the  milk  in  the  community  with  the  Babcock  tester. 
Judge  several  cows  according  to  the  following  characteristics : 
Parts.  Points 

1.  Head — Lean  and  long.     Muzzle  clean  cut,  mouth  large, 

eyes  large  and  bright   4 

2.  Neck — Fine,  medium  length  and  thin  2 

3.  Forequarters — Withers,  lean  and  thin;  shoulders  angu- 

lar and  oblique;  legs  short  and  straight;  shank  fine; 
feet  well  placed   4 

4.  Chest — Deep  and  thick,  giving  large  lung  capacity  ....   10 

5.  Barrel — Deep,  wide,  full,  and  medium  long;  ribs  broad 

and  far  apart;  back  straight  and  open  jointed   14 

6.  Hind  Quarters — Rump  long,  wide  and  level;  thighs  thin 

and  roomy,  hips  wide  apart,  on  level  with  back;  legs 
straight  and  short,  and  feet  well  placed 5 

7.  Udder  and  Milk  Veins — Udder  large,  full,  wide,  extend- 

ing far  front  and  back,  covered  with  loose,  pliable  skin 

and  fine  hair.     Not  fleshy   20 

Teats  convenient  size,  evenly  placed  and  far  apart  ...     5 
Milk  veins  large,  branching,  crooked  and  long,  enter- 
ing large  and  numerous  milk  wells  8 

8.  General  Form — Wedge  shaped   as  viewed    from    front, 

side  and  top,  prominent  joints  and  clean  bones 10 


167 

Quality — Loose  mellow  skin,  medium  thickness,  cov- 
ered with  fine  soft  hair 8 

9.     Symmetry  and  Beauty  of  Form — Alert,  powerful,  vigor- 
ous, not  easily  excitable   10 


Total    100 

Teacher's  Corrections.     1   ;  2   ; 

3    ;  4    ..;   5    ; 

6 ;    ?    ;    8    ; 

9  ;  Total 

Student ., 

Date 

Orchards. 

Certain  sections  of  the  state  are  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing.    In 
these  sections  special  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  this  phase  of 
agriculture.     Small  fruits  are  adapted  to  all  parts  of  the  state. 
Teach : 

1.  The  location  of  the  orchard — as  to  soil,  sunlight,  and  drainage. 

2.  Preparation  of  the  soil. 

3.  Transplanting  the  young  trees. 

4.  Management. 

a.  Cultivation. 

b.  Pruning. 

c.  Spraying. 

d.  Thinning,  gathering,  storing  and  marketing  the  fruit. 

5.  Care  of  bush  fruits — such  as  raspberry  and  blackberry. 

Exercises:  Prepare  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  lime-sulphur  solu- 
tion. Teach  the  children  to  recognize  the  common  "garden  and 
orchard  pests.  Give  demonstrations  in  spraying.  Call  for  reports  of 
home  orchards  and  their  yields.  Select  apples  suitable  for  market 
purposes.  See  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  on  Fruit 
Growing. 

Enemies    of  Plants. 

All  plant  life  is  likely  to  be  attacked  by  insects  or  diseases,  which 
will  lessen  the  vitality  of  the  plant,  and  in  cases  of  fruit  bearing 
plants,  the  crop  is  likely  to  be  completely  destroyed.  Children  should 
be  able  to  recognize  the  common  insect  pests  and  fungus  diseases 
and  know  how  to  combat  them. 


168 

Study: 

1.  Insects. 

a.  Those  that  bite — such  as  the    potato    beetle,    cabbage 

worm,  etc. 

b.  Those  that  suck — such   as  the  chinch  bug,  plant  lice, 

squash  bug,  San  Jose  scale,  etc. 

2.  Fungus  diseases — as  potato  scab,  brown  rot  on  peaches,  rusts 

on  cereals. 

3.  Bacterial  diseases — as  fire  blight  in  pear  and  apple  trees. 

4.  Study  the  remedies. 

a.  Fungicides — Bordeaux  mixture,  lime-sulphur. 

b.  Eemedies  for  biting  insects — Paris  green,  arsenate  of 

lead. 

c.  Eemedies  for  sucking  insects — lime-sulphur,    kerosene 

emulsion,  tobacco. 

The  College  of  Agriculture  will  supply  bulletins  which  will  be  of 
service  in  teaching  the  above  subjects. 

Farm  Accounts  and  Records. 

This  subject  can  be  taught  as  a  part  of  practical  bookkeeping. 
Teach : 

1.  How  to  make  a  farm  inventory. 

2.  A  debit  and  credit  record  with  each  field  or  crop. 

3.  A  debit  and  credit  record  of  live  stock. 

4.  A  debit  and  credit  record  of  the  poultry. 

5.  How  to  keep  a  breeding  record  of  animals. 

6.  The  cost  of  insurance,  taxes  and  depreciation  in  value  of  farm 

equipment. 

7.  Cost  of  living  on  a  farm. 

8.  Amount  of  capital  needed. 

Problems  of  Agriculture. 

The  following  topics  are  given  as  supplementary  to  the  regular 
outline.  They  should  receive  attention  from  time  to  time,  not  as 
assigned  work,  but  as  topics  to  be  discussed  between  teacher  and 
pupils :  How  the  farmer  spends  his  time  during  the  different  months 
of  the  year.  The  leading  crops  raised  in  the  community.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  farmer  depends  upon  his  education,  liking  for  the  work, 
energy,  economy,  past  experiences,  use  of  improved  methods,  selling 
at  the  right  time,  and  planting  what  is  demanded.  What  are  some 
of  the  improvements  in  farming?  Compare  farming  today  with 


169 

that  of  twenty  years  ago.  How  can  farm  life  be  made  more  attract- 
ive ?  Compare  farm  life,  under  the  present  conditions,  with  the  life 
of  an  ordinary  boy  in  the  city.  Do  country  boys  and  girls  find  life 
in  the  city  attractive  ?  Give  a  summary  of  all  the  advantages  of  life 
in  the  country.  Study  West  Virginia  as  one  great  farm,  considering 
its  climate,  soil,  and  methods  of  transportation  in  different  parts  of 
the  state. 

Conclusion. 

In  the  above  outline  only  those  phases  of  agriculture  are  ^selected 
which  apply  to  West  Virginia  conditions.  It  is  most  profitable  to 
study  a  few  things  in^  which  the  boy  is  interested  and  in  which  he 
can  secure  definite  results  and  relate  all  other  work  to  these  main 
projects.  Teachers  who  find  that  they  hare  time  to  study  more  than 
is  outlined  above  should  consult  the  State  Supervisor  of  Agricultural 
Education  for  further  assistance. 


GEOGRAPHY 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 
Statement. 

The  course  in  geography  as  here  outlined  is  limited  to  the  fourth, 
fifth  and  sixth  grades.  If  geography  is  properly  taught  in  these 
grades  the  fundamentals  can  be  intelligently  acquired  within  this 
time. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  geography  will  be  taught  only 
in  connection  with  other  subjects,  such  as  history,  civics,  and  agri- 
culture, the  textbook  being  used  as  a  reference  book  only.  Example : 

Suppose  the  history  class  is  studying  the  Spanish-American  War. 
The  pupils  should  turn  to  their  geographies  and  fix  in  their  minds 
the  location  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the  history  and  review  the 
geography  of  the  West  Indies  and  Philippine  Islands  as  to  physical 
conditions,  occupations,  customs,  governments,  etc.  Or,  suppose  the 
class  in  agriculture  is  studying  wheat.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to 
compare  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  with  the  other  wheat 
producing  countries  of  the  world  as  to  yield,  methods  of  production, 
cost  of  production,  markets,  etc. 

The  work  in  the  first  three  grades  has  been  provided  for  in  con- 
nection with  nature  study. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

OUTLINE  (FIRST  HALF  YEAR). 
Method  and  Purpose. 

Method:  No  book  is  to  be  used.  The  knowledge  in  this  grade  is 
to  be  gained  from  actual  observations  in  the  region  of  the  home. 

Purpose:  To  furnish  the  child  through  observation  and  experience 
with  such  fundamental  ideas  as  will  help  him  to  form  correct  notions 
of  the  countries  or  regions  which  he  has  not  seen. 

It  is  expected  that  nature  study  in  the  lower  grades  will  have 
contributed  to  home  geography  so  that  certain  sections  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  subject  may  be  passed  over  rapidly. 


171 

Seasons. 

Observations:  Beginning  in  September  with  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox, a  series  of  weekly  or  monthly  observations  should  be  started  and 
carried  on  through  the  year  with  the  purpose  of  determining: 

(1)  Time  of  sunrise  and  sunset,  with  varying  lengths  of  day  and 
night. 

(2)  The  altitude  of  the  sun  at  mid-day,  or  angle  of  sun's  rays. 
as  shown  by  the  length  of  shadow  cast  by  a  vertical  post. 

A  record  should  be  kept  of  these  observations.  Special  care  should 
be  taken  to  make  accurate  observations  on  the  vernal  and  autumnal 
equinoxes  (March  21st  and  September  22nd),  and  the  winter  and 
summer  solstices  (December  21st  and  June  22nd). 

While  making  these  observations,  the  directions,  north,  south,  east 
and  west,  should  be  taught.  The  expressions  "up"  for  north  and 
"down"  for  south,  should  never  be  used.  As  the  observations  pro- 
ceed, the  pupil  will  see  that  the  sun  rises  exactly  in  the  east  and  sets- 
exactly  in  the  west  only  at  the  time  of  the  equinoxes.  He  should 
learn  to  think  of  north  as  the  direction  in  which  the  shadow  of  a 
vertical  post  falls  at  noon. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  year  these  observations  should  be  sum- 
marized and  a  conclusion  reached  as  to  the  cause  of  the  change  of 
seasons.  The  pupil  should  be  able  to  see  that  summer  is  warmer 
than  winter  because  the  days  are  longer,  the  nights  shorter,  and  the 
sun's  rays  nearer  vertical,  and  that  change  of  season  is  due  to  the 
changing  length  of  day  and  night  and  the  changing  angle  of  the- 
sun's  rays.  That  vertical  rays  heat  more  than  slanting  rays  will  usu- 
ally be  demonstrated  by  a  single  day's  observation  of  the  difference 
in  temperature  between  sunrise  and  noon.  The  above  explanation 
of  seasons  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  made  in  the  child's  experience 
and  the  only  one  that  should  be  attempted  in  this  grade.  The  shape- 
and  motions  of  the  earth  should  not  be  mentioned  in  this  grade  in 
connection  with  the  season,  and  the  explanations  which  involve  this- 
use  should  be  postponed  until  the  advanced  text  is  introduced. 

Weather  Observations. 

Parallel  with  the  above  observations,  a  simple  record  of  weather 
observations  should  be  kept.  This  should  include  the  condition  of 
the  sky,  temperature,  precipitation,  direction  of  wind,  etc.,  for  each 
day  in  the  school  year. 


173 

The  following  table  is  suggestive: 

Date.  Sky.  Temperature.     Precipitation.     Wind. 

Sept.  20  Clear  Warm  75°  None  S.  E. 

Sept.  21  Cloudy         Cooler  60°  Rain  S.  to  S.  W. 

Sept.  22  Fair  Cold  40°  Light  Frost  N.  W. 

Remarks : 

Under  remarks,  a  record  of  many  interesting  phenomena  may  be 
kept,  such  as  first  snow,  first  robin,  wild  geese  flying  north,  first  vio- 
let, etc. 

Aim  to  associate  wind  directions  with  condition  of  the  sky,  tem- 
perature, moisture  and  rainfall,  and  to  determine  what  winds  give 
us  clearest  skies  and  coolest  weather;  or  warmer  temperature,  cloudy 
skies  and  rain,  or  our  heavy  snow  storms.  The  explanation  of  all 
this  will  come  in  the  later  grades. 

Note:  See  "First  Notions  of  Geography"— D.  C.  Heath  &  Com- 
pany, New  York,  for  valuable  suggestions  and  directions  for  weather 
observations  and  the  seasons. 

The  Surface  of  Land. 

These  are  to  be  studied  through  field  trips  and  excursions. 

The  teacher  should  plan  each  trip  in  advance.  Several  recitations 
may  be  based  upon  one  field  trip  or  excursion. 

Note:  See  McMurr/s  "Special  Method,  in  Geography,"  for  sug- 
gestions on  field  trips  and  excursions,  etc. 

Study  the  slopes  between  the  school  house  and  the  pupils'  homes. 
Have  the  children  decide  which  is  easiest  to  travel  over.  Hence  the 
relation  of  slopes  to  roads. 

Study  the  view  to  be  seen  from  the  schoolhouse  windows,  or  in  the 
nearest  playground  or  field.  Emphasize  irregularity  of  surface. 

Learn  the  names  of  the  local  features.  Give  terms  like  hill,  plain, 
valley,  gully,  gorge  or  canyon,  divide,  alluvial  fan,  after  the  form 
has  been  studied. 

Show  as  fully  as  possible  how  people  depend  upon  slopes. 

Study  the  location  of  towns  with  reference  to  slopes.  Pick  out  cer- 
tain buildings  and  study  their  location,  as  the  church  on  a  hill,  a 
store  where  roads  meet. 

Study  distribution  of  trees  and  note  the  relation  of  occupations 
to  slopes  in  local  landscapes. 

As  far  as  possible,  give  illustrations  of  variety  of  forms  from  your 
home  state  by  means  of  photographs  to  be  found  in  railroad  time 
tables  and  folders. 


173 

Show  views  from  other  illustrations  to  bring  out  the  point  that 
similar  forms  are  found  in  other  distant  regions. 

Have  the  children  summarize  the  local  landscape  features  by 
means  of  definitions  made  by  themselves. 

The  Water  on  the  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Xote  the  necessity  of  water  for  plants,,  animals  and  people. 

Tell  how  drinking  water  is  obtained  in  your  home  locality.  Ex- 
plain wells,  or  springs,  or  city  water  supply. 

Study  the  water  of  a  stream  and  note  the  sediment  contained.  Dis- 
cuss the  origin  of  sediment. 

Follow  changes  of  surface  form  due  to  running  water;  study  a 
local  valley  as  to  width,  depth,  quality  of  slope ;  study  the  rapidity  of 
flow  on  different  slopes  and  note  falls,  rapids,  and  lakes,  if  any  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood. 

Study  parts  of  a  stream  and  develop  definitions  associated  with 
local  water  courses  and  valleys. 

Study  uses  of  water  in  commerce,  manufacturing,  and  irrigation. 

The  Soils. 

Observe  the  weathering  of  rocks,  the  crumbling  banks,  the  rusting 
of  tools  to  show  how  rocks  decay  and  form  soil. 

Have  a  box  of  soil  in  the  room  and  study  its  fineness,  color,  feel- 
ing and  the  way  it  takes  up  water. 

Test  different  kinds  of  soil  by  having  the  children  plant  seeds  and 
compare  results. 

If  possible,  study  a  soil  section  out  of  doors.  Notice  the  layers 
of  soil  and  subsoil  in  excavations  and  railway  cuts. 

Show  how  soil  is  necessary  to  plants  and  study  effects  of  running 
water  on  soils. 

Discuss  means  of  retaining  the  soil  on  slopes. 

Occupations. 

Find  out  the  leading  industries  of  the  locality,  their  location  and 
importance. 

Study  the  need  of  division  of  labor  in  families  and  communities. 

Have  the  pupils  work  out  the  number  of  different  occupations  that 
contribute  to  their  needs. 

Illustrate  agriculture  by  window  gardening  or  school  plots. 

Make  a  study  of  the  various  crops  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  the 
soil  upon  which  they  grow,  the  manner  of  harvesting  these  crops,  and 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  put. 


174 

Illustrate  grazing  by  observation  of  cattle,  sheep  or  horses. 

What  lands  are  suitable  for  grazing  and  the  best  grasses  for  this 
purpose. 

Study  manufacturing  in  any  factory  to  be  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  grist  mill,  saw  mill,  creamery,  brick  yard,  and  foundry, 
are  typical  in  that  the  manufacturing  plant  is  stationary  and  the 
raw  material  must  be  transported  to  the  power  or  the  factory. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the  conditions  necessary  for  manufac- 
turing are: 

(a)  Power,  such  as  water  power,  steam,  gasoline  and  electricity. 

(b)  Raw  material. 

(c)  Food  supply  for  employees. 

(d)  Labor. 

(e)  Commercial  facilities,  wagons,  freight  cars  or  vessels  which 
'bring  raw  material  to  the  factory  and  take  away  the  manufactured 
product. 

Bring  out  the  advantage  of  money  as  representing  wealth  and 
-as  an  aid  to  commerce. 

Transportation  and  Commerce. 

Study  local  trade. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  commerce  grows  out  of  diversity  of 
needs  which  in  turn  grows  largely  out  of  diversity  of  occupations. 

Show  how  transportation  involves  distance  and  direction. 

Have  the  pupils  prepare  lists  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured 
.articles  exported  from  and  imported  into  the  neighborhood. 

Have  pupils  find  out  the  kind  of  plows,  buggies,  binders,  sewing 
machines,  and  other  articles  of  farm  and  household  use,  and  where 
they  are  made.  In  this  way  the  connection  may  be  made  between 
the  home  section  and  distant  sections. 

Study  means  of  transportation  and  the  effect  of  good  roads  as  an 
;aid  to  commerce  and  happier  living. 

Products  of  the  World  Brought  to  us  Through  Commerce. 

Have  the  children  make  lists  of  food  products  used  by  them  that 
•come  from  a  distance. 

Tell  the  children  stories  about  some  of  the  distant  regions  of  the 
•earth  that  supply  them  with  necessities,  such  as  coffee  from  Brazil, 
tea  from  China  and  Japan,  rubber  from  the  Amazon  valley. 

Rice,  bananas,  coffee,  cocoa,  valuable  woods,  rubber,  and  quinine 
will  show  the  relation  of  home  locality  to  southern  North  America 
and  northern  South  America. 


175 

Hides  and  meat  products  will  illustrate  our  relation  to  southern 
South  America;  furs  the  colder  parts  of  North  America  and  Eurasia; 
olives,  olive  oil,  cheese,  embroidery,  and  linen  from  Europe;  silt, 
spices,  pepper,  tea  and  rugs  from  Asia;  ivory  and  diamonds  from 
Africa;  and  wool  from  Australia  will  show  the  relations  to  these 
countries. 

Select  the  products  the  children  have  seen  or  heard  about.  Make 
a  brief  study  of  the  lives  of  the  people,  of  climate  and  of  plant  and 
animal  life  in  each  region  considered. 

Compare  with  home  locality. 

The  pupils  have  found  that  the  home  region  is  dependent  upon, 
and  contributes  to,  many  other  regions  in  furnishing  man  with  food, 
clothing  and  shelter.  It  is  because  of  this  mutual  dependence  that 
these  distant  regions  should  be  known. 

On  a  globe  have  the  children  locate  distant  places  which  they  have 
heard  about  and  compare  in  distance  and  direction  with  home 
locality. 

Note:  Follow  the  manual  as  the  topics  are  presented,  organize  it, 
make  your  observations  with  the  pupils,  and  have  them  draw  their 
conclusions. 

Maps  and  Mapping. 

The  ability  to  read  and  use  a  map  is  of  permanent  value  to  the 
pupil.  A  map  is  not  a  picture.  The  features  presented  on  a  map 
are  represented  by  means  of  symbols  which  often  have  no  resemblance 
to  the  features,  themselves.  The  map  work  in  this  grade  should  make 
the  child  familiar 

(1)  With  the  things  and  geographical  features  themselves. 

(2)  With  the  use  of  symbols  by  which  these  features  are  repre- 
sented upon  maps.    The  pupil  should  not  be  required  to  use  a  symbol 
in  mapping  until  he  has  become  familiar  through  observation,  ex- 
perience or  pictures,  with  the  thing  symbolized. 

The  first  maps  made  by  the  child  should  be  of  things  and  places 
so  familiar  to  him  that  neither  time  nor  attention  need  be  spent 
upon  the  things  themselves  but  upon  the  idea  of  representing  them  by 
symbols.  A  map  or  plan  of  the  school  room  and  the  school  yard 
should  first  be  drawn.  From  the  first  let  the  maps  be  drawn  to  a 
scale — a  half  or  quarter  of  an  inch  on  the  paper  representing  a  foot, 
yard,  or  rod  on  the  region  mapped.  As  the  observation  work  is  ex- 
tended so  as  to  include  streams,  valleys,  hills,  alluvial  fans,  etc.,  the 
mapping  of  these  various  features  should  be  extended  until  -the  child 
is  familiar  not  only  with  the  region  and  its  map,  but  with  the  general 


176 

idea  of  mapping.  The  idea  of  direction  should  be  introduced  early. 
Maps  drawn  in  this  grade  should  always  contain  some  symbol  to 
iridicate  directions,  such  as  an  arrow  which  points  north,  or  some 
other  symbol.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  pupils  make  maps  with 
north  at  the  top,  but  it  is  necessary  that  north  be  indicated  by  some 
symbol,  so  that  the  pupil  may  early  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  for 
the  direction  symbols  on  every  map. 

When  desirable  use  colors  to  distinguish  features  on  the  map. 

References  for  Comparative  Home  Geography. 

1.  Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands — Shaw.    Ameri- 
can Book  Co.     30  cents. 

2.  Children  of  the  Cold— Schwatka.    Ed.  Pub.  Co.     50  cents. 

3.  Children  of  the  Palm  Land— Allen.    Ed.  Pub.  Co.      50  cents. 

4.  Each  and  All — Andrews.     Ginn  &  Co. '   50  cents. 

5.  Northern  Europe.     Ginn  &  Co.     30  cents. 

6.  Seven  Little  Sisters — Andrews.    Ginn  &  Co.     50  cents, 

7.  Strange  Lands  Near  Home.     Ginn  &  Co.      30  cents. 

8.  The  Wide  World.     Ginn  &  Co.     30  cents. 

9.  Toward  the  Eising  Sun.     Ginn  &  Co.     30  cents. 

10.  Under  Sunny  Skies.    Ginn  &  Co.     30  cents. 

11.  The  Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands— Chaplin.    Lathrop  Pub.  Co. 
60  cents. 

12.  Excursions    and    Lessons    in    Home    Geography — McMurry. 
Macmillan.    50  cents.     (For  Teachers.) 

13.  How  We  Are  Clothed — Chamberlain.     Macmillan.     40  cents. 

14.  How  We  Are  Fed — Chamberlain.    Macmillan.    40  cents. 

15.  Around  the  World,   Geographical   Headers,   3   Vol.       Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

16.  The  Snow  Baby— Peary.     F.  A.  Stokes  &  Co.     $1.20. 

17.  Home  Life  in  All  Lands — Morris.     Lippincott.     $1.50. 

18.  Fairbank's  Home  Geography.     Ed.  Pub.  Co.    $1.00. 

19.  How  We  Are  Sheltered.     Macmillan  Co.     45  cents. 

(SECOND  HALF  YEAR). 
General  Geography. 

I.  Globe  study,  three  weeks.      (General  directions  for   carrying- 
on  this  work  given  below.) 

II.  Transition  from  globe  to  map. 

III.  Elementary  textbook  taken  up  and  completed  to  page  98. 


177 

IV.     Regional  study  of  North  America  and  the  United  States. 
I.     Globe  study. 

(1)  Form  and  size  of  the  earth. 

By  enlarging  the  conception  given  by  the  globe,  try  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  immense  ball  on  which  we  live,  how  it  is  composed  of 
rock,  mantled  over  with  loose  material  and  soil  of  varying  depth ;  that 
immense  depressions  are  filled  with  water  forming  oceans  and  sepa- 
rating the  larger  land  masses  or  continents.  Instead  of  having  diam- 
eter and  circumference  committed  to  memory  as  such,  let  them  be 
used  as  data  for  simple  problems,  such  as  "How  long  would  it  take  a 
man  to  travel  around  the  earth  on  the  equator,  traveling  at  an  aver- 
age rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour?"  At  best  the  globe  must  stand  as  a 
symbol  for  ideas  and  facts  too  large  for  the  comprehension  of  the 
child. 

(2)  Motions  of  the  earth. 

(a)  Revolution  around  the  sun.     Little  can  be  done  to  make 
this  motion  mean  much  to  the  child  because  he  cannot  experience  it. 
He  may  learn  that  it  is  the  time  required  to  make  one  such  revolu- 
tion that  determines  the  length  of  one  year.    This  revolution  is  only 
one  of  four  or  five  factors  which,  combined,  produce  seasons.    Review 
the  observations   on  seasons  made  in  the   first  half  year  and  the 
conclusions  thus  reached. 

(b)  Rotation  and  some  of  its  consequences. 

(c)  Succession  of  day  and  night. 

(d)  Directions,  north,  south,  east  and  west,  are  due  to  rotation. 
North  is  toward  the  north  pole.     The  north  pole  is  one  end  of  the 
axis,  and  the  axis  is  due  to  rotation.    Do  not  use  the  expressions  "up" 
and  "down"  for  north  and  south. 

(e)  Show  how  directions  are  indicated  on  the  globe  by  meridians 
and  parallels;  the  former  run  north  and  south,  the  latter  run  east 
and  west.    Give  much  drill  in  using  these  direction  symbols. 

(f)  Locations  of  places  on  the  earth.     Show  how  meridians  are 
numbered  east  and  west  from  a  given  prime  meridian,  and  the  par- 
allels north  and  south  from  the  equator,  and  how  from  numbers  on 
the  lines  which  intersect  at  a  given  place  it  is  possible  to  tell  the 
location  of  places  on  the  globe.     Give  abundant  drill  in  thus  locat- 
ing places  until  the  child  can  readily  tell  the  approximate  latitude 
and  longitude  of  any  point  on  the  globe. 

(3)  Distribution  of  land  and  water,  continents  and  oceans. 

(a)     Positions  of  continents  on  the  globe,  their  direction  from 


178 

each  other,  the  bounding  and  intervening  oceans.  Explain  these  great 
land  and  water  bodies  to  the  child  before  introducing  their  symbols. 
The  idea  should  always  come  before  its  symbol. 

(b)  General  shape  and  form  of  continents,  with  a  few  of  the  most 
important  capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  seas,  gulfs  and  bays. 

(c)  Relative  size  of  continents  as  estimated  from  globe. 

Note:  For  this  work,  an  eighteen  inch  globe  is  almost  a  neces- 
sity. One  of  the  best  is  the  pendant  globe,  sold  by  me  Caxton  Com- 
pany, of  Chicago. 

(4)     Climatic  conditions  011  the  earth. 

Review  what  the  pupils  learned  in  the  First  Half  Year  as  to  the 
relation  of  high  sun  and  low  sun  to  the  warm  temperatures  of  sum- 
mer and  the  cold,  ones  of  winter.  Let  the  teacher  go  in  imagination 
with  the  class  to  the  equator,  and  tell  them  where  the  sun  rises  and 
sets  and  where  it  is  at  noon  at  various  times  during  the  year,  empha- 
sizing the  steep  rays  which  always  fall  at  that  parallel,  so  that  the 
pupils  from  their  own  experience  with  steep  rays  and  a  high  sun 
ought  to  infer  the  hot  temperature  of  this  region.  Then  go  with  them 
to  the  "Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun,"  with  its  slanting  rays  and  low 
sun  and  let  them  infer  the  conditions  of  temperature  there.  Locate 
the  doldrum  belt  near  the  equator  with  its  hot,  moist  climate,  with 
its  daily  rains.  Contrast  with  this  rainy  belt  the  hot  dry  regions  on 
either  side,  over  which  the  trade  winds  blow  making  such  deserts  as 
the  Sahara,  Kalahara  and  the  one  in  Australia.  Now  contrast  with 
the  uniformly  hot  dry  climate  of  the  deserts  or  the  uniformly  hot  and 
moist  climate  of  the  doldrum  belt,  the  variable  weather  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  as  it  has  been  observed  by  the  child. 

II.     Transition  from  globe  to  map. 

The  pupils  should  have  become  so  familiar  with  the  globe  that 
^hey  are  able 

(a)  To  locate  any  place  in  approximately  its  correct  latitude  and 
'longitude. 

(b)  To  tell  directions  on  the  globe. 

(c)  To  know  at  a  glance  the  names  of  the  Tarious  continents 
irom  their  shape  and  outline. 

It  now  becomes  necessary  to  represent  Tarious  features  of  sur- 
face and  drainage,  etc.,  with  greater  detail  than  can  be  done  on  the 
globe,  so  that  the  map  must  be  introduced.  In  order  that  the  pupils 
do  not  form  wrong  conceptions,  owing  to  the  flat  surface  upon  which 


179 

a  map  is  made,  the  use  of  the  sand  table  is  recommended.  Here  the 
relief  form  may  be  represented  and  the  concept  transferred  to  the 
map.  When  the  pupil  knows  the  meaning  of  all  the  various  symbols, 
can  tell  direction  on  the  map,  locate  places  when  their  latitude  and 
longitude  are  given,  and  knows  how  to  use  the  scale,  he  is  then  pre- 
pared to  read  and  study  the  map. 

The  use  of  the  map.  In  studying  a  region,  there  is  much  informa- 
tion concerning  position,  form  and  boundries,  size,  surface  and  drain- 
age that  can  be  much  better  read  from  the  map  than  it  can  be  from  the 
text.  This  work  should  be  done  in  the  class  and  from  good  wall  maps 
that  show  the  physical  features  of  the  region  studied.  The  work  of 
map  reading  should  be  done  at  first  under  the  direction  and  question- 
ing of  the  teacher.  Organize  your  class  into  an  imaginary  exploring 
party,  and  as  you  sail  in  imagination  up  the  Mississippi,  Amazon  or 
Xile,  tell  them  by  word  and  picture  of  the  wonderful  sights  that  would 
greet  their  eyes  were  they  really  sailing  up  those  rivers.  Make  the 
symbols  on  the  map  speak  of  real  rivers,  mountains  and  plains. 
When  the  map  has  told  all  it  can  in  this  way,  let  the  pupils  read 
what  the  text  has  to  say.  What  it  does  say  will  mean  something 
because  they  are  prepared  to  understand  it. 

The  atlas  habit.  It  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  start  tfte  pupils  of 
this  age  in  the  formation  of  right  habits.  Whenever,  tn  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  reading,  history  or  geography  lesson,  the  pupils  read  of  a  city, 
river,  mountain  or  other  geographical  feature,  the  teacher  should  in- 
sist that  he  stop  and  look  up  in  his  atlas  the  location  of  the  place. 
Places  located  in  this  way  have  something  with  which  they  can  be 
associated  and  will  be  remembered  the  longer  because  of  this  associa- 
tion. 

Map  drawing.  Map  drawing  is  a  means  to  an  end,  and  this  end  is 
the  better  understanding  of  the  position,  form,  size,  surface,  drainage, 
•etc.,  of  the  regions  studied.  The  sand  table  should  be  used  only  as  a 
means  of  expression  by  the  child,  as  a  means  of  teaching  new  ideas. 
If  the  child  has  studied  at  first  hand  some  gully  or  valley,  the  repro- 
duction of  his  conception  of  it  is  an  excellent  means  of  fixing  the 
concept  in  his  mind. 

III.     Eegional  Geography,  see  II  above. 

Outline  for  Continental  Study  of  North  America. 
I.     Position.     Consult  and  locate  on  globe. 

1.  In  zones,     pp.  24,  25. 

2.  In  hemispheres,     p.  25. 


180 

3.  In  relation  to  bordering  waters,     p.  41. 

4.  In  relation  to  other  continents,     p.  20. 

II.  Form. 

1.  General:     Roughly  triangular,     pp.  40,  41. 

2.  Actual,  determined  by: 

(a)  Its  more  important  indentations,    pp.  40,  41,  43. 

(b)  Its  more  important  prolongations,     pp.  40,  41,  43. 

III.  Size. 

1.  As  compared  with  other  continents.     This  should  be  done 
only  approximately.    No  area  in  square  miles  is  to  be  given. 

2.  As  shown  by  the  fact  that  North  America  stretches  entirely 
across  the  temperate  zone  and  reaches  into  the  Frigid  zone  of  the 
north  and  the  Torrid  zone  of  the  south. 

3.  How  long  would  it  take  to  journey    in    various    directions 
across  it  at  different  rates?    Give  problems  to  be  solved. 

IV.  Relief.  (Data  to  be  secured  largely  from  map.) 

1.  Highlands : 

Rocky  Mountain  highlands,    pp.  40,  41,  43. 
Appalachian  highlands,    pp.  40,  41,  43. 

2.  Lowlands : 

Plains : 

The  Great  Central  plain,    pp.  40,  41,  43. 
The  Atlantic  Coastal  plain,     pp.  40,  41,  43. 
The  Gulf  Coastal  plain,    pp.  40,  41,  43. 

V.  Drainage. 

Gulf  drainage.    ppV  40,  41,  43. 
Atlantic  drainage,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 
Pacific  drainage,  pp.  40,  41,  43. 

VI.  Distribution  of  people :    Where  dense,  where  sparse,  as  deter- 

mined by  the  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  food  pro- 
ducing capacity  of  the  various  sections.    Supplement  text. 

VII.  Political  divisions,     p.  43. 

1.  United  States  and  Alaska. 

2.  Dominion  of  Canada. 

3.  Mexico. 

4.  Central  America. 

The  order  of  topics  in  the  study  of  North  America  is  followed  in 
the  study  of  the  United  States    as  a  whole.     VIII    (Relief),     IX 


181 

(Drainage),  X  (Climate),  and  XI  (Possibilities  of  Occupation),  are 
to  be  treated  with  greater  fullness  because  of  their  greater  impor- 
tance. It  is  the  large  general  truths  of  relief,  climate,  natural  re- 
sources and  industry  which  are  wanted,  not  isolated  evidences  of 
geographical  relationships. 

VIII.  Eelief: 

1.  This  includes  a  study  of  the  differences  in  character,  eleva- 
tions and  extent  between  the  two  great  highland  masses.  In  this 
connection  the  chief  ranges  should  be  named,  located  and  character- 
ized. 

IX.  Drainage. 

Chief  drainage  lines  and  their  relation  to  the  relief  forms.  Drill 
most  upon  the  streams  which  are  commercially  important. 

X.  Climate. 

Show  the  position  of  the  United  States  on  the  globe.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  northern  part  is  near  the  Frigid  zone.  Locate  the'  home 
state  and  the  city  or  village  nearest  to  the  school.  Have  the  chil- 
dren recall  the  usual  weather  conditions  during  the  summer  and 
winter  in  their  own  home  region.  Show  pictures  of  southern  scenes 
and  let  the  children  tell  how  the  northern  and  southern  seasons  dif- 
fer. The  children,  through  their  nature  study  should  be  familiar 
with  the  processes  of  evaporation  and  Condensation  of  moisture. : 

Explain  how  moisture  evaporates  over  the  sea  and  is  borne  into 
the  interior  to  be  condensed  and  fall  as  rain  over  the  land.  Show 
upon  maps  the  distribution  of  rainfall  in  the  United  States.  Have 
pupils  locate  on  wall  maps  regions  of 

1.  Abundant  rainfall: 

(a)  Where  the  rain  is  well  distributed  and  where  the  tem- 
perature is  warm  enough  to  produce  abundant  vegetation,  and 

(b)  Where  the  rain  is  abundant  in  amount  and  in  a  warm 
region,  but  where  not  well  distributed,  resulting  in  arid  or  semi-arid 
wastes,  and 

(c)  Where  the  rain  is  abundant;  but  in  cold  regions,  result- 
ing in  snow. 

2.  Medium  rainfall,  enough  so  that  crops  will  grow. 

3.  Slight  rainfall,  result,  deserts. 

XI.  Possibilities  of  occupation. 

As  a  result  of  the  relief,  temperature  and  rainfall,  it  will  be  found 
that  certain  parts  of  the  United  States  are  suited  to  certain  indus- 


tries,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  divide  the  states  into  groups  in  which 
the  same  industries  are  carried  on.     In  this  way  locate: 

1.  The  chief  agricultural  and  grazing  sections  and  their  chief 
productions. 

2.  The  mining  regions  and  the  most  important  minerals. 

3.  The  lumbering  regions  and  the  most  important  trees. 

4.  The  manufacturing  regions. 

5.  The  fishing  grounds  and  the  chief  catches. 

XII.     States. 

Give  the  pupils  an  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  a  state;  point  out 
physical  regions  and  state  groups  and  have  them  identify  these  groups 
by  their  leading  industries. 

Only  a  few  of  the  leading  industrial  and  commercial  cities  should 
be  studied,  and  these  should  be  closely  identified  with  the  industrial 
region  in  which  they  are  situated  and  with  their  leading  productions. 

Alaska  should  be  considered  with  the  United  States. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 
(First  Half  Year) . 

The  first  half  of  the  year  should  be  spent  upon  the  following  coun- 
tries : 

South  America. 

Europe. 

Asia. 

Africa. 

Australia. 

The  chief  points  to  be  covered  are : 

1.  Position. 

2.  Form. 

3.  Size. 

4.  Eelief. 

5.  Drainage. 

6.  Climate. 

7.  Occupations  and  industrial  regions. 

8.  Centers  of  population  and  chief  cities. 

Simplify  the  work.  Confine  the  work  to  the  study  of  geography. 
Do  not  go  into  too  many  details. 

(Second  Half  Year.) 

West  Virginia  and  the  first  60  pages  of  Frye's  Higher  Geography. 
The  study  of  the  state  should  be  thorough.    It  is  more  easily  com- 


183 

prehended,  both  physically  and  industrially,  than  more  distant  coun- 
tries; even  more  so  than  distant  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Outline  for  West  Virginia. 

I.  Position. 

II.  Form. 

III.  Size  as  indicated  by  (1)  the  latitude,  (2)  distance  by  scale 
of  miles  east  and  west,  north  and  south,  (3)  area  as  compared  with 
other  states. 

IV.  Belief: 

1.  The  Alleghany  mountains. 

2.  The  Plateau  section. 

3.  The  rounded  hills. 

Draw  map  of  state  to  simple  scale  showing  these  regions. 

V.  Drainage :    The  sources  of  rivers,  their  courses  and  directions. 

1.  The  Potomac  system. 

2.  The  Ohio  system. 

VI.  Climate.  j 

VII.  Soils :    Uplands,  and  flood  plains. 

VIII.  Vegetation. 

1.  The  forests  and  the  lumber  and  paper  industries. 

2.  The  general  diversified  agriculture  of  the  state.  j 

3.  The  grazing  regions  and  the  cattle  industry.  j 

4.  The  market  gardening  and  truck  raising  regions. 

IX.  Animal  Life. 

X.  Mineral  wealth  and  mining  industries. 
XL     Manufacturing. 

XII.  Distribution  of  population.  | 

XIII.  Transportation  and  trade  routes. 

First  60  pages  of  Frye's  Higher  Geography. 

If  the  work  has  been  well  done  in  the  fourth  grade,  the  first  60 
pages  can  be  quickly  covered.  It  will  be  mostly  a  review  with  mo-re 
intensive  work  on  seasons,  winds  and  rainfall,  land  forms,  and  physi- 
cal conditions. 


184 
SIXTH  GRADE. 

South  America,  Europe,  North  America,  the  United  States  and 
West  Virginia,  should  have  been  studied  in  the  order  mentioned,  with 
special  reference  to  their  great  industries  and  the  physical  and  social 
conditions  influencing  them. 

Colonies,  no  matter  where  located,  if  important  enough  to  be  noted, 
are  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  mother  country.  The  com- 
.mercial  relations  existing  between  the  home  countries  and  their  sev- 
eral colonies  are  to  be  emphasized. 

Begin  text  on  page  137.  After  the  study  of  South  America  and 
Europe  as  indicated  above,  return  to  page  61  and  make  an  intensive 
study  of  the  United  States  and  West  Virginia. 

Note  the  Special  Topics  given  below  for  development  and  compari- 
son with  like  conditions  in  other  lands.  These  topics  should  lead  to 
general  truths.  These  topics  will  furnish  material  for  reveiws  of 
other  places  on  the  globe,  and  should  be  studied  in  connection  with 
the  geography  of  the  United  States. 

The  outlines  below  are  suggestive,  but  the  teacher  should  empha- 
size the  topics  from  VII-XV  rather  than  those  from  I-VI. 

I.  Position. 

(1)  Relative. 

(2)  Absolute. 

II.  Form.. 

(1)  Relative. 

(2)  Actual.        ;  . 

(a)'    As  shown  by  map. 

(b)  Indentations. 

(c)  Prolongations. 

(3)  Continental  shelf. 

III.  Size. 

(1)  Relative. 

(a)  Compared  with  other  continents. 

(b)  In  relation  to  oceans. 

(c)  What  part  of  the  whole  earth. 

(2)  Actual. 

(a)  Extreme  breadth  and  length  of  time  it  takes  to  make 

the  journey. 

(b)  Number  of  square  miles. 


185 

IV.  Eelief.     (Data  secured  largely  from  map.) 

(1)  Highlands  including  plateaus. 

(a)  Position. 

(b)  Extent. 

(c)  Elevation. 

(d)  General  character. 

Broken  with  numerous  passes,  or 
Continuous,  with  few  peaks  or  passes. 
Structure,  mountain  folds,  or  blocks, 
Chief  passes. 

(e)  Arrangement : 

Parallel  ranges. 
Cross  ranges. 

(2)  Eelations  of  the  highlands  to  the  great  continental  slopes, 

great  drainage  systems,  interior  basins  and  the  nature 
of  coast  lines. 

(3)  Lowlands. 

(a)  Position. 

(b)  Extent. 

(c)  Structure. 

(d)  Kinds: 

Rolling  plains. 
Coast  plains. 
Flood  plains. 
Delta  plains. 

V.  Climate. 

(1)  As  indicated  by  angle  of  sun's  rays  or  latitude. 

(2)  As  modified  by  elevation. 

(3)  As  influenced  by  winds  from  ocean. 

(4)  As  shown  by  isothermal  map. 

VI.  Rainfall: 

(1)  Region  of  moderate  and  heavy  rainfall. 

(2)  Influence  of  highlands  upon  winds  and  rainfall. 

(3)  Location  of  rainless  areas  and  reason  therefor. 

VII.  Drainage : 

(1)  Chief  rivers  and  their  relation  to  the  land  forms  which 

they  have  been  instrumental  in  creating. 

(2)  Lakes: 

(a)  Fresh  water  lakes. 

(b)  Salt  water  lakes. 


186 

VIII.  Soil: 

(1)  That  which  has  been  formed  in  place. 

(2)  That  which  has  been  transported. 

IX.  Zones  of  vegetation,  as  dependent  upon 

(1)  Temperature,  as  determined  by  latitude,  altitude,  proxim- 

ity to  water,  and  influence  of  ocean  currents. 

(2)  Rainfall. 

(3)  Character  of  the  soil. 

X.  Zones  of  waste,  as  dependent  upon 

(1)  Lack  of  moisture. 

(2)  Altitude. 

(3)  Latitude. 

(4)  Too  much  moisture. 

(a)  Swamp. 

(b)  Jungle. 

(c)  Bad  lands. 

(5)  Poor  soil. 

XL     Distribution  of  animal  life. 

XII.  Distribution  of  mineral  resources. 

XIII.  •  Distribution  of  population,  as  dependent  upon  possibilities 
of  occupation,  resources,  supply  and  demand  and  commercial  advan- 
tages. 

XIV.  Development  and  location  of  centers  of  population  as  show- 
ing the  needs  of  the  people  for  commercial  centers,  manufacturing 
centers,  and  government  centers. 

XV.  Development  of  commercial  and  trade  routes,  resulting  from 
the  effort  to  obtain  the  products  and  the  patronage  of  the  other  peo- 
ples of  the  world. 

Harbors. 
Eiver  systems. 
Railways. 

XVI.  Political  divisions  and  government. 

Special  Topics. 

Special  topics  suitable  for  development  and  comparison  with  like- 
conditions  in  other  lands.  These  topics  should  lead  to  general  truths. 
They  will  furnish  material  for  reviews  of  other  places  on  the  globe* 


187 

They  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  geography   of  the 

United  States. 

I.  Northeastern  Section  and  North  Central  Section. 

1.  In  a  cotton  factory  at  Lowell,  Mass. 

2.  The  arsenal  and  gun  factory  at  Springfield. 

3.  The  woolen  factories  at  Fall  Eiver. 

4.  Watches  and  watch  makers  at  Waltham. 

5.  In  a  shoe  factory  at  'Lynn. 

6.  The  granite  quarries  of  New  Hampshire. 

7.  Among  the  light  houses  along  the  coast. 

8.  New  York  harbor  and  Ellis  Island;  landing  of  immigrants. 

9.  Garden  farming  in  New  Jersey. 

10.  In  a  West  Virginia  coal  mine. 

11.  A  blast  furnace  at  Pittsburg. 

12.  The  oil  fields  of  West  Virginia. 

13.  The  peach  orchards  of  West  Virginia,  Maryland  and  Dela- 

ware. 

14.  The  oyster  beds  of  the  Chesapeake. 

15.  Tobacco  culture  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky. 

16.  The  hard  and  soft  woods  of  West  Virginia. 

17.  The  prairies  of  Illinois. 

18.  Chicago  as  a  trade  center.     (McMurry,  pp.  63-73.) 

19.  Pineries  of  Michigan.     (McMurry,  pp.  73-85.) 

20.  Copper  mines  of  Michigan  and  lead  mines  of  Wisconsin. 

21.  The  wheat  fields  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas. 

22.  The  flouring  mills  of  Minneapolis. 

23.  The  corn  and  live  stock  of  Indiana. 

II.  Southern  Section. 

1.  The  rice  fields  of  the  Carolinas. 

2.  Semi-tropical  fruits  of  Florida. 

3.  Cotton  culture  in  Georgia  and  Mississippi. 

4.  The  levee  at  New  Orleans. 

5.  A  sugar  plantation  in  Louisiana. 

6.  A  cattle  ranch  in  Texas. 

III.  Plateau  Section*. 

1.  Farming  by  irrigation. 

2.  A  mining  camp  in  Colorado. 

3.  Gold  and  silver  smelting  at  Denver. 

4.  A  trip  to  Yellowstone  Park. 


188 

5.  Fruits  and  flowers  of  California. 

6.  Salmon  fishing  on  the  Columbia  river. 

Encourage  home  reading.     The  school  library  should  have  a  num- 
ber of  supplementary  readers,  geographies  and  aids  to  the  study  of 
this  subject. 
Books  suitable  for  the  use  of  students: 

Brigham — From  Trail  to  Railway. 

Carpenter — Europe. 

Carpenter — How  the  World  is  Fed. 

Carpenter — How  the  World  is  Clothed. 

Chamberlain — How  We  Are  Clothed. 

Chamberlain — How  We  Are  Sheltered. 

Books  for  the  Teacher : 

Roschelau — Great  American  Industries. 

McMurry — Special  Method  in  Geography. 

Mill — Choice  of  Geographic  Books  for  Reference. 

Nichols — Topics  in  Geography. 
Geographic  Journals: 

The  Journal  of  Geography. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society. 

The  National  Geographic  Magazine. 


UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 
Material,  Purpose  and  Method. 

All  the  material  used  in  the  lower  grades,  whether  classed  under  the 
head  of  literature  or  history,  should  tend  to  develop  in  children  an 
interest  in  men  and  their  achievements,  either  real  or  fictitious. 

The  material  used  in  the  grades  below  the  fifth  should  include : 

(1)  Folk  stories,  fables,  fairy  tales  and  nature  myths. 

(2)  Stories  of  the  Indians,  Eskimos,  and  Northmen. 

(3)  Facts  in  local  history. 

(4)  Essential  facts  concerning  holidays  and  anniversaries. 

(5)  Patriotic  songs  and  poems. 

If  this  material  is  presented  to  the  children  in  the  right  way  the 
following  results  should  be  attained:  The  pupils  will  acquire  the 
power  to  imagine  events  in  the  past ;  they  will  appreciate  heroic  char- 
acters and  noble  deeds;  they  will  gain  a  knowledge  concerning  some 
of  the  simpler  facts  of  American  history,  particularly  as  related  to 
places  of  local  interest. 

If  these  results  are  to  be  secured  care  must  be  exercised  in  the 
method  of  treatment  and  presentation.  Story  telling  by  the  teacher 
is  an  excellent  method  of  presenting  history  to  young  children.  In 
fact,  it  is  the  only  satisfactory  method  of  presenting  stories  to  chil- 
dren. Therefore,  the  teacher,  if  he  does  not  already  possess  it,  should 
acquire  the  art  of  telling  stories.  "He  must  acquire  skill  in  making 
facts  and  situations  vivid  to  children."  That  is,  he  must  arouse  and 
cultivate  their  imagination  so  that  they  will  construct  mental  pic- 
tures that  approximate  the  distinctness  of  reality. 

"The  previous  knowledge  of  children,  their  home  experiences,  as 
well  as  facts  remembered  from  books,  must  be  called  out  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  topic  or  story  under  discussion/3  That  means,  of 
course,  that  the  teacher  must  keep  within  the  experience  of  the  child 
even  in  such  simple  work  as  story  telling. 

By  the  time  the  children  reach  the  third  and  fourth  grades  oral 
and  written  reproduction  may  be  required  of  them,  leading  to  com- 
plete stories.  These  exercises,  if  conducted  properly,  will  provide 
excellent  drill  in  oral  and  written  language. 


190 
SECOND    GRADE. 

Indian  Life  provides  excellent  material  for  children  in  this  grade. 
It  is  the  time  in  the  life  of  the  child  when  he  is  most  interested  in 
the  subject  and  if  he  is  taught  properly  he  will  acquire  much  infor- 
mation which  will  prove  helpful  when  a  more  serious  study  of  the 
subject  is  taken  up  later  in  the  course. 

Stories  suitable  for  this  grade  will  be  found  in  (1)  Pratt's  Legends 
of  Red  Children;  (2)  Husted's  Story  of  Indian  Children;  (3)  Hus- 
ted's  Story  of  Indian  Chieftains;  (4)  Burton's  The  Story  of  the 
Indians  of  New  England. 

In  connection  with  Thanksgiving  day  the  story  of  the  Mayflower 
and  the  Pilgrims  would  be  interesting.  Study :  The  Landing  of  the 
Pilgrims ;  Story  of  the  Mayflower ;  Plymouth  Rock ;  the  First  Thanks- 
giving Day ;  Miles  Standish ;  Samoset  and  Squanto ;  the  First  Winter. 

References : 

Tiffany:  Pilgrims  and  Puritans.  Pratt:  Colonial  Children. 
Lane  and  Hill :  American  History  in  Literature. 

Later  in  the  year  birthdays  of  great  men  may  be  celebrated.  Since 
Washington  is  one  of  the  first  men  in  which  the  children  become  in- 
terested, his  life  may  be  studied  in  this  year.  Suitable  material  may 
be  found  in  any  of  the  following:  Pratt:  American  Stories  for 
American  Children.  A  First  Book  in  American  History,  by  Eggles- 
ton.  Hart:  Colonial  Children. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  year  local  events  may  be  studied.  In 
every  community  there  are  some  things  of  interest  which  will  appeal 
to  the  children.  Such  things  as  naming  the  district,  the  first  set- 
tlements in  the  community,  local  railroad,  the  town,  the  school  house, 
and  the  church. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Continue  the  work  begun  in  the  second  year;  that  is,  make  a  more 
extensive  study  of  the  life  of  the  Indians,  of  great  men  and  women, 
great  events  in  the  making  of  our  country,  which  are  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  children;  the  early  history  of  the  neighborhood 
should  receive  some  attention  in  this  grade. 

Material  suitable  for  this  work  may  be  found  in  such  books  as: 
Stories  of  Pioneer  Life,  Florence  Bass;  Great  Americans  for  Little 
Americans,  Eggleston.  (See  reference  in  Grade  Two  for  material 
on  Indians  and  Indian  Life.) 


191 
FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  GRADES. 

The  work  in  these  grades  should  include,  in  addition  to  that 
suggested  for  the  third  grade  stories  of  great  discoverers,  explorers, 
inventors,  and  other  persons  distinguished  in  American  history.  The 
pupils  are  now  able  to  read  stories  for  themselves,  and  should  be  en- 
couraged to  do  so.  Although  the  teacher  should  continue  to  tell  and 
to  read  stories  to  the  children. 

In  these  grades  the  scope  of  treatment  should  be  enlarged,  especially 
as  to  local  history  and  holidays.  Also,  a  more  detailed  study  should 
be  made  of  great  men  and  women  in  history. 

The  following  books  will  furnish  excellent  material  for  study  in 
these  grades  :  American  History  for  American  Children,  Pratt ;  First 
Book  of  American  History,  Eggleston;  Ten  Great  Events  in  History, 
Johonnot;  American  History  in  Literature,  Lane  and  Hill;  Heroes 
of  Discovery  in  America,  Morris. 

It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  correlate  history  with  other  sub- 
jects in  all  grades  below  the  fifth.  But  where  the  work  is  properly 
organized  this  can  well  be  done.  The  subject  is  one  of  importance  and 
should  receive  as  much  attention  as  conditions  will  permit.  In  the 
lower  grades  the  subject  can  best  be  taught  in  connection  with  lan- 
guage and  literature.  The  stories  used  in  the  language  lesson  can 
often  be  selected  from  history.  Also,  subjects  for  composition  may 
be  selected  from  the  field  of  history.  In  fact,  when  the  work  is  well 
planned,  all  three  can  be  taught  successfully  together. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Textbook:  Montgomery's  Beginner's  American  History.  Note 
that  the  story  of  our  country  is  presented  in  this  book  by  giving  the 
biographies  of  many  of  the  prominent  men  of  our  country.  The  story 
element  predominates  over  the  cause  and  effect  idea  of  history.  The 
principal  facts  in  the  history  of  a  colony,  or  of  a  period,  are  grouped 
about  the  life  of  some  prominent  men  of  the  time.  Have  pupils  note 
the  strong  traits  of  character  in  each  of  these  men,  as  they  serve  as 
examples  and  ideals  to  arouse  enthusiasm,  and  have  an  unestimated 
power  in  giving  the  initial  impulses  toward  the  formation  of  charac- 
ter in  children.  Furthermore,  "such  biographies  disclose  to  a  child 
the  broad  arena  of  possible  action,  and  at  the  same  time  give  an  im- 
pulse to  the  full  stretch  of  his  own  best  powers.  So  far  as  biographies 
are  typical  or  representative,  they  give  insight  into  the  common  inter- 
ests of  society  and  are  the  natural  introduction  to  public  concerns/' 


193 

Since  the  time  allotted  to  the  text  is  limited  do  not  try  to  supple- 
ment it  too  much  except  by  material  of  the  same  kind. 

Train  in  topical  recitations  so  that  pupils  will  acquire  good  oral 
expression.  Have  some  of  the  stories  reproduced  in  writing,  as  this 
exercise  will  furnish  training  in  the  art  of  composition  and  will  at 
the  same  time  make  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression  on  the  pu- 
pil's mind  of  the  event  studied.  Make  special  occasions  prominent 
by  relating  some  story,  well  founded,  in  regard  to  Thanksgiving  day, 
Fourth  of  July,  Memorial  day,  birthdays  of  men  ana  women. 

Encourage  inquiry  into  local  history — naming  of  districts,  settle- 
ments, the  local  railroad,  the  town,  and  any  other  things  that  may 
be  of  interest.  In  history  as  in  other  subjects  the  material  used  must 
be  within  the  range  of  the  child's  experience. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

(First  Half  Year.) 

Textbook:  Montgomery's  Leading  Facts  of  American  History. 
During  the  first  half  of  the  year  complete  the  text  to  Chapter  IV. 
This  part  of  the  book  includes  the  story  of  the  discovery  of  America, 
its  exploration,  the  settlement  and  growth  of  the  colonies  up  to  the 
close  of  the  French  and  Indian  Wars,  together  with  an  account  of 
the  lives,  customs,  and  civilization  of  the  American  Indians. 

In  teaching  the  chapters  on  the  Discovery  of  America  and  on  Ex- 
ploration and  Colonization,  it  should  be  made  clear  that  from  the 
beginning  American  History  has  been  closely  identified  with  the  his- 
tory of  Europe;  also,  that  the  settlers  who  came  here  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury brought  with  them  the  ways  of  living  and  the  inventions  known 
to  Europeans  at  that  time.  In  this  connection  it  would  be  well  to  try 
to  estimate  the  value  to  mankind  of  such  inventions  as  gunpowder, 
the  mariner's  compass,  and  the  printing  press,  and  compare  them  as 
to  usefulness  with  more  recent  inventions  like  the  steamship,  the  rail- 
road, the  telegraph,  and  the  telephone. 

Discovery  of  America :  At  this  point  it  would  be  well  to  show  how 
conditions  in  Europe  led  to  the  voyage  of  Columbus.  Make  a  brief 
study  of  the  Crusades  and  their  effects  on  Europe;  the  commercial 
interests  of  southern  Europe  during  the  last  half  of  the  15th  century; 
eastern  trade,  means  of  travel,  difficulties  of  the  journey;  the  effect 
of  the  fall  of  Constantinople.  Also,  give  some  attention  to  the  life 
and  activities  of  some  of  the  leaders  in  the  movements  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  If  pupils  are  to  get  a  clear  un- 


193 

derstanding  of  this  period,  constant  use  must  be  made  of  maps  and 
globes.  As  far  as  possible  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  examine 
maps  which  show  the  ideas  held  relative  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
earth  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America. 

Exploration:  The  lively,  picturesque,  and  adventurous  phases  of 
life  during  this  period  appeal  to  children  and  furnish  material  well 
adapted  to  instruct  them.  In  the  study  of  this  period  show  how 
claims  of  different  nations  to  portions  of  the  New  World  were  based 
on  discovery  and  explorations.  As  far  as  possible  pupils  should  be 
made  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  explorations,  the  objects  and 
methods  of  the  explorers,  and  the  reasons  for  the  success  or  failure 
in  planting  the  colonies.  Of  course,  such  explanation  involves  some 
knowledge  not  only  of  the  national  traits  of  character  of  the  Spanish, 
the  English,  the  Dutch,  and  the  French,  but  also  the  relations  which 
existed  among  them  as  nations.  Aim  to  have  the  pupils  understand 
the  significance  of  the  various  discoveries  and  explorations  of  the  time 
and  show  how  they  influenced  colonial  history. 

In  studying  the  Indians  aim  to  discover  their  influence  on  the  early 
history  of  the  country.  Note  the  relation  of  the  Indians  to  (a)  the 
English  settlements,  (b)  the  French  settlements.  Account  for  the 
differences. 

Colonization :  The  colonial  period  is  of  transcendent  importance 
as  the  seed  time  of  ideas  and  institutions.  Note  the  conflict  of  ideas 
in  Europe  in  the  various  lines  that  led  to  the  migration  and  coloniza- 
tion in  the  New  World.  Note  what  ideas  are  most  prominent  in  the 
different  colonies,  and  observe  that  no  one  idea  so  completely  tri- 
umphs over  the  others  as  to  make  them  entirely  subordinate,  as  had 
to  be  the  case  in  Europe.  Note  also  the  character  of  the  men  who 
wen?  leaders  in  the  several  lines  of  institutional  growth.  And  espe- 
cially observe  the  inter-relations  of  ideas  and  institutions;  how,  for 
example,  in  New  England  the  church  tinged  with  its  coloring,  the 
social,  industrial,  political  and  educational  life  of  the  people;  how  in 
New  York  business  in  a  large  measure  controlled  all  other  lines  of 
growth ;  how  in  the  South  the  social  element  was  prominently  active. 
But  observe  that  by  the  time  the  colonial  period  merges  into  the 
period  of  union,  all  the  institutional  ideas  are  practically  on  a  foot- 
ing of  equality. 

Politically,  the  most  important  idea  of  this  period  is,  perhaps,  that 
of  local  self-government.  Its  growth  and  influence  in  each  colony 
should  be  carefully  watched.  It  accounts  for  numerous  conflicts  be- 
tween the  colonists  and  their  royal  governors,  and  in  a  great  measure 


194 

explains  the  larger  conflict  that  resulted  in  American  Independence. 
Before  taking  up  the  chapter  on  Permanent  English  and  French 
Settlements  it  would  be  well  to  review  briefly  Kaleigh's  attempts  to 
colonize  the  New  World.  Observe  how  his  methods  differed  from 
those  used  later,  and,  if  possible,  account  for  his  failure. 

On  page  42  of  the  text  is  shown  the  influence  physical  geography 
has  had  on  the  history  of  our  country.  This  topic  is  important  and 
should  receive  special  emphasis  in  passing  over  it  and  should  be 
referred  to  from  time  to  time  while  studying  other  topics.  Nowhere 
in  the  text  is  the  relation  between  history  and  geography  so  clearly 
brought  out. 

After  studying  the  main  events  in  the  history  of  each  of  the  colo- 
nies, give  special  attention  to  the  following  typical  colonies:  Vir- 
ginia, as  representing  the  Southern  group;  Massachusetts,  as  repre- 
senting the  New  England  group;  and  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania, 
as  representing  the  Middle  group.  Other  colonies,  especially  Mary- 
land and  Connecticut,  should  receive  some  consideration,  as  they  both 
played  a  rather  prominent  part  in  the  early  history  of  the  country. 

Before  beginning  the  study  of  Massachusetts  the  pupils  should 
understand  who  the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  were  and  why  they  came 
to  America. 

Compare  Massachusetts  and  Virginia  as  to  religious  affairs,  types 
•of  government,  character  of  colonists.  Show  how  life  in  each  of  these 
•colonies  was  influenced  by  geographic  conditions.  A  similar  com- 
parison may  be  made  between  the  other  colonies,  as  there  is  probably 
tno  better  way  of  studying  them. 

In  the  general  study  of  the  colonies  give  attention  to  the  different 
•modes  of  government  prevailing  at  different  times,  the  introduction 
of  slavery,  representative  assembly,  the  relation  6f  the  colonies  to 
^ach  other,  and  to  the  mother  country.  Show  influences  that  tended 
to  keep  the  colonies  apart,  others  that  tended  to  unite  them. 

French  and  Indian  Wars.  It  should  be  carefully  noted  here  that 
the  two  great  European  nations,  France  and  England,  are  intensely 
jealous  of  the  colonial  development  of  each  other  and  are  anxious  to 
possess  the  Hudson  valley — the  key  to  all  the  possessions  on  the  At- 
lantic coast.  Only  the  last  of  the  series  of  wars  between  these  nations 
should  be  studied  intensively,  as  it  was  the  only  one  in  which  all  the 
colonies  took  part  and  the  one  which  brought  to  a  close  the  long 
struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  New  World.  It  is  also  important 
because  of  the  influence  it  had  on  the  development  of  the  English 
colonies. 


105 

"In  studying  -the  last  great  conflict  between  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish for  colonial  empire,  we  have  an  excellent  opportunity  to  review 
broadly  the  whole  course  of  colonial  settlement  by  these  two 'nations, 
to  contrast  the  characters  of  the  French  and  the  English  in  America^ 
and  to  get  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  quality  of  the  English  col- 
onists as  a  whole.  This  is  a  very  good  illustration  to  show  how  the 
long  series  of  historical  facts  summarize  themselves  in  a  single 
event." 

In  this  war  as  in  all  others  the  results  are  more  important  than  the 
military  campaigns.  Therefore,  do  not  fail  to  emphasize  those  topics 
which  show  what  the  war  settled  and  its  results  on  the  later  history 
of  the  country. 

Do  not  fail  to  make  some  study  of  the  internal  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  colonies  during  this  period,  as  the  life  and  activities  of 
the  common  people  are  always  an  important  part  of  a  nation's  his- 
tory. 

The  Revolution  and  the  Constitution:  "A  detailed  description  of 
battles  and  campaigns  is  profitable  only  to  experts  in  military  service, 
whereas  the  causes  that  lead  a  country  into  war,  especially  into  a  war 
for  independence,  are  most  important  stages  in  the  evolution  of  a  peo- 
ple's political  and  moral  life."  Therefore,  after  a  rather  full  study 
of  the  causes  and  conditions  leading  up  to  the  American  Revolution, 
dwell  but  briefly  on  the  actual  conflict.  Only  the  significant  move- 
ments should  receive  special  consideration.  Campaigns  are  more 
important  than  battles. 

In  the  study  of  the  causes  of  the  Revolution,  the  personality  of 
such  leaders  as  William  Pitt  and  George  III  in  England  and  of  Sam- 
uel Adams  and  Patrick  Henry  in  America  deserve  marked  attention. 
In  the  study  of  the  war  itself  it  will  be  seen  that  many  of  the  most 
important  events  may  be  centered  about  the  commanding  personality 
of  Washington. 

Aim  to  have  the  pupils  appreciate  the  significance  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  These  docu- 
ments are  the  expression  of  a  great  change  in  sentiment  among  the 
•colonists.  Make  an  effort  to  discover  the  causes  of  this  radical  change 
in  public  sentiment.  From  1776  note  the  rapid  growth  of  the  idea 
of  independence  and  union  among  the  colonies.  During  the  Critical 
Period  of  American  history  note  the  influences  that  tended  to  unite 
the  colonies;  also,  those  that  tended  to  keep  them  apart. 

In  studying  the  breakdown  of  the  Confederation  and  the  adoption 
of  the  Constitution,  be  sure  that  the  pupils  understand  the  weakness 


196 

of  Congress  under  the  Confederation;  the  commercial  war  between 
the  states;  money  troubles  of  the  Confederation  and  the  conflicting 
claims  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  with  the  real  result  of  their  set- 
tlement. 

If  the  causes  of  the  breakdown  of  the  Confederation  are  made  clear,, 
the  pupil  is  prepared  to  understand  why  the  Constitution  was  neces- 
sary. As  steps  leading  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  fol- 
lowing topics  should  be  studied  or  reviewed :  New  England  Confed- 
eration; Franklin's  Plan  of  Union;  Stamp  Act  Congress;  Commit- 
tees of  Correspondence;  First  Meeting  of  Continental  Congress;  the 
Declaration  of  Independence ;  Adoption  of  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion; Annapolis  Convention;  Constitutional  Convention.  If  these 
topics  are  treated  in  the  right  way  the  pupil  will  not  only  understand 
the  growth  toward  union,  but  also  the  causes  of  such  growth. 

At  this  point  note  carefully  the  character  of  the  men  who  made 
the  Constitution;  the  different  plans  proposed;  compromises  on  the 
most  important  questions  at  issue;  what  the  Constitution  did  for  the 
country. 

Before  taking  up  the  chapter  on  organizing  the  new  government 
the  pupils  should  draw  a  map  showing  the  territory  belonging  to  the- 
United  States  after  the  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  They  should 
also  know  something  about  the  population,  domestic  life,  social,  politi- 
cal, and  industrial  life  in  this  territory. 

(Second  Half  Year.) 

The  Union  and  National  Development.  The  expansion  and  devel- 
opment of  our  country  under  the  Constitution  is  the  theme  of  this- 
half  year's'  work.  It  will  be  observed  that  as  we  approach  the  more 
recent  topics  of  our  history  the  subject  grows  more  and  more  complex 
and  difficult.  That  means,  of  course,  that  the  teacher  must  employ 
the  best  methods  in  presenting  the  material  to  the  pupils.  Many  of 
the  pupils  are  now  completing  their  education  for  citizenship,  in  the 
common  schools,  and  history  should  be  so  taught  as  to  bring  the  chil- 
dren in  touch  with  our  modern  problems  and  into  sympathy  with 
our  present  social  and  economic  conditions. 

In  the  short  time  allotted  to  it,  it  will  be  impossible  to  study  thor- 
oughly all  the  important  events  in  this  period.  Therefore,  it  would 
be  better  to  select  the  most  important  and  most  typical  phases  and 
events  of  the  period  and  group  about  them  such  illustrative  material 
a-s  time  and  conditions  will  permit. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  time  from  1789  to  1861  was  one  in 


197 

which  the  ideas  of  State  and  National  supremacy  were  almost  con- 
tinually in  conflict,  and  numerous  compromises  were  resorted  to  as 
a  means  of  temporary  adjustment.  These  form  a  kind  of  backbone 
of  our  national  politics  during  the  time,  and  a  tracing  of  them  in  all 
relations  will  cover  a  large  part  of  history. 

The  following  topics  are  suggested  upon  which  to  focus  the  atten- 
tion: Organization  of  the  government  and  finances;  growth  in  ter- 
ritory; internal  improvement;  history  and  extension  of  slavery;  lead- 
ing inventions  and  inventors;  immigration;  the  rise  and  influence  of 
political  parties;  the  three  departments  of  our  government;  our  sys- 
tem of  revenue;  our  relations  with  other  countries. 

Most  of  the  topics  selected  for  this  period  have  a  continuous  chrono- 
logical, and  causal  sequence  extending,  in  some  cases,  through  the 
whole  constitutional  period.  The  growth  of  slavery  until  it  cul- 
minated in  the  Civil  War  and  reconstruction,  is  an  illustration  of 
this  long-continued  sequence  of  causally  related  facts. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 
(First  Half  Year.) 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  to  the  present.  Keview 
briefly  the  course  of  events  leading  up  to  the  Civil  War.  Compare 
the  strength  of  the  two  sections  as  to  population,  wealth,  natural 
resources,  military  training,  strategic  positions.  Show  attitude  of 
the  border  states,  plans  of  campaign,  lines  of  attack  and  defense,  and 
blockade  of  the  Southern  ports.  Trace  various  campaigns  noting 
principal  leaders  and  successes  of  either  side;  trace  the  progress  of 
the  war  on  the  sea;  the  final  great  campaigns;  the  outcome  of  the 
struggle;  situation  in  the  North,  situation  in  the  South.  Note  the 
losses  of  life  and  property  of  the  war  and  its  cost.  Show  the  condi- 
tion of  the  freed  negroes.  Call  attention  to  the  plans  of  reconstruc- 
tion proposed,  the  readmission  of  the  seceded  states,  the  amendments 
to  the  Constitution,  and  the  end  of  the  reconstruction  period. 

Following  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  is  the  period  of  national  devel- 
opment. It  is  characterized  by  great  expansion  in  industrial  agencies, 
manufactures  and  commerce.  The  period  is  a  very  complex  one,  and 
perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  teach  satisfactorily.  There  is  a 
great  deal  of  legislation.  The  main  topics  for  special  attention  are 
the  laws  regarding  money  and  banking;  the  successive  tariff  enact- 
ments ;  the  relations  of  labor  and  capital ;  the  growth  of  corporations 
and  trusts  on  the  one  hand  and  of  labor  organizations  on  the  other, 
strikes,  boycotts,  lockouts,  etc.;  great  increase  in  manufactures;  in- 
dustrial expositions;  occupancy  of  public  lands;  organization  and 


198 

admission  of  new  states;  rise  of  the  doctrine  of  conservation  of  nat- 
ural resources;  irrigation  of  arid  lands;  establishment  of  forest  re- 
serves and  reservation  of  water  power  sites;  the  Spanish-American 
War  and  the  new  position  of  the  United  States  among  the  nations 
of  the  world  as  a  result  of  it.  These  are  some  of  the  subjects  which 
must  be  treated. 

Teachers  will  doubtless  find  it  an  aid  in  presenting  the  work  in 
history  to  divide  it  into  periods  which  can  be  characterized  by  some 
general  statement.  Consult  the  Table  of  Contents  as  to  what  these 
divisions  are  in  the  text  used.  The  following  divisions  taken  from 
Adams  &  Trent's  History  of  the  United  States  may  also  be  helpful : 

1492  to  1765.— Discovery  and  Settlement. 

1765  to  1789.— Revolution. 

1789  to  1825.— Organization  of  Political  Parties. 

1825  to  1850. — Spread  of  Democracy  and  Extension  of  Territory. 

1850  to  1861.— Eve  of  the  Civil  War. 

1861  to  1869. — Civil  War  and  Reconstruction. 

1869  to . — Period  of  National  Development. 

Books  Suitable  for  School  Libraries. 

McMurry — Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. — The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Catherwood. — Heroes  of  the  Middle  West. — Ginn  &  Company. 

Eggleston. — Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure. — American 
Book  Company. 

Andrews. — Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago. — Ginn  &  Co. 

Fiske. — The  War  of  Independence. — Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Elson. — Side  Lights  on  American  History. — The  Macmillan  Co. 

Guerber. — Story  of  the   Great  Republic. — American  Book   Co. 

Franklin. — Autobiography. — Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 

Hart. — Camps  and  Firesides  of  the  Revolution. — The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Judson. — The  Growth  of  the  American  Nation. — The  Macmillan 
Company. 

Coffin. — Boys  of  '76. — Harper  Brothers. 

Coffin. — Boys  of  '61. — Harper  Brothers. 

Caldwell. — American    History    Studies. — Ainsworth   &    Company. 

Fiske-Irving. — Washington  and  His  Country. — Ginn  &  Company. 

Andrews. — The  United  States  in  Our  Own  Times. — Scribner's. 

Hart. — Source  Book  of  American  History. — The  Macmillan  Co. 

Sparks. — Expansion  of  the  American  People. — Scott.  Foresman  k, 
Company. 


199 

Roosevelt.— Winning  of  the  West.— Putnam. 

Coneau.— Industrial  History  of  the  United  States.— The  Macmil- 
lan  Co. 

Brigham.— Geographical  Influences  in  American  History. — Ginn 
&  Co. 

Channing.— Student's  History  of  the  United  States.— The  Macmil- 
lan  Co. 

Jackson. — A  Century  of  Dishonor. — Roberts  Bros. 

From  a  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States  the  pupil  should 
gain  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  discovery  and  exploration  of  our 
country,  of  the  settlement  and  growth  of  the  colonies,  of  our  separa- 
tion from  the  mother  country,  and  of  the  formation  of  our  national 
government.  It  should  enable  him  to  trace  our  growth  and  develop- 
ment as  a  nation  since  our  separation  from  Great  Britain  and  to 
learn  in  what  respects  our  development  has  been  notable.  Further- 
more, it  should  explain  prevailing  conditions  and  institutions  by 
showing  how  they  have  come  about.  This  is  our  best  way 
of  understanding  the  present  and  of  placing  ourselves  in  a  posi- 
tion to  participate  intelligently  in  the  solution  of  the  great  problems 
of  social  and  political  betterment  which  it  is  the  duty  of  all  of  us 
to  face. 

It  is  also  to  be  hoped  that  the  study  of  the  history  of  our  country 
and  its  great  men  will  not  merely  acquaint  the  pupils  with  important 
facts,  but  will  serve  to  develop  in  them  a  true  patriotism  and  to  cul- 
tivate those  moral  qualities  which  they  see  have  made  men  famous 
and  our  country  great. 

The  foundation  for  the  study  of  history  should  be  laid  in  the  lower 
grades.  This  foundation  work  should  not  be  entirely  incidental,  but 
should  have  a  definite  purpose  which  should  be  to  furnish  a  body  of 
facts  and  knowledge  by  which  to  interpret  the  new  series  of  facts  now 
to  be  presented ;  to  train  the  imagination  to  construct  mental  pictures 
of  events  described,  and  to  create  an  interest  in  the  subject.  If  this 
preparatory  work  is  done  properly,  the  difficulties  attending  the  first 
attempt  at  the  study  of  history  will  be  greatly  lessened. 

The  approach  to  history  in  the  lower  grades  should  be  through  the 
story  and  through  biography.  The  early  interest  of  the  child  is  not 
in  history  as  a  scientific  study,  but  in  the  stories  of  heroic  men  and 
their  noble  deeds. 

The  pupil  begins  the  acquisition  of  historical  knowledge  as  isolated 
facts.  He  organizes  these  into  series  later,  and  constructs  his  phil- 
osophy of  history  last.  He  should  observe  carefully  this  order  of  de- 
velopment. 


200 

Cultivate  the  imagination;  that  is,  make  use  of  pictures  and  maps 
to  assist  the  mind  to  image  things  which  are  described. 

The  recitation  period  in  history  should  give  time  for  the  .same 
classes  of  exercises  as  are  essential  in  any  other  subject.  These  exer- 
cise may  be  termed  (1)  testing,  (2)  teaching,  (3)  preparation. 
The  first  part  of  the  period  may  be  given  up  to  testing  the  class  upon 
their  work  on  the  lesson  assigned  the  day  before.  This  test  should  be 
more  than  a  verbal  test.  The  second  part  of  the  period  may  be  used 
by  the  teacher  in  giving  new  illustrations,  citations,  and  statements 
to  add  to  the  knowledge  of  the  class.  The  third  part  may  be  used 
in  carefully  going  over  the  lesson  of  the  following  day,  making  clear 
just  what  is  expected,  what  helps  are  to  be  used,  and  where  they  are 
to  be  found,  and  by  giving  such  other  suggestions  and  instructions  as 
may  seem  necessary  to  enable  the  pupils  to  study  the  lesson  intelli- 
gently. 

The  topical  method  is  strongly  recommended  whenever  it  can  be 
used.  More  attention  should  be  given  to  subjects  and  less  to  para- 
graphs and  pages.  Events  will  thus  follow  in  logical  sequence  and 
will  "live  before  the  pupils/'  instead  of  being  disconnected  and  un- 
interesting facts.  . 

From  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  formal  history  in  the  fifth 
grade,  constant  use  should  be  made  of  maps  and  charts.  The  maps 
may  be  made  by  the  pupils  themselves  or  outline  maps  may  be  pur- 
chased and  filled  in  by  the  pupil.  The  teacher  should  be  guided  by 
his  own  judgment  as  to  what  should  be  put  on  the  maps.  Pupils 
should  also  study  carefully  the  maps  in  the  book. 

All  writers  do  not  agree  as  to  the  importance  of  various  facts  and 
events,  hence  some  material  is  found  in  some  books  that  does  not 
appear  in  another.  It  can  be  made  a  matter  of  interest  for  pupils 
to  compare  different  books  as  to  the  material  used  and  method  of 
treatment.  In  fact  the  teacher  should  have  more  than  one  text  on 
her  desk  and  the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  consult  them  as 
much  as  time  will  permit. 

Where  teachers  have  no  special  preparation  for  teaching  history 
they  will   secure   valuable   suggestions  -regarding   its    purposes   and 
manner  of  presenting  material  by  reading  some  one  or  more  of  the 
following  books :     McMurry's  Special  Method  in  History — The  Mac- 
millan  Company;  Methods  of  Teaching  and  Studying  History  (edit- 
ed by  Hall) — IX  C.  Heath  &  Company;  Hinsdale's  How  to  Study 
and  Teach  History —  IX  Appleton  &  Company:  Mace's  Method  in 
History   for   Teachers    and    Students — Ginn    &•    Company,    Bourne's 
The  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics — Longmans,  Green  &  Company. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Material  and  Method. 

Text:     Peter-man's  Elements  of  Civil  Government. 

The  study  of  civil  government,  or  civics,  has  generally  been  re- 
garded a  dry,  difficult  subject,  especially  for  girls.  If  such  be  the 
case  we  believe  that  method,  not  subject  matter,  is  at  fault,  for  in 
a  republic  such  as  ours  the  study  of  our  relationships  one  with  anoth- 
er in  society  should  be  extremely  interesting.  Teachers  are  expected 
to  use  the  textbook  in  the  teaching  of  civics,  to  be  sure,  but  those 
teachers  who  depend  wholly  upon  the  text-book  will  come  far  short 
of  meeting  the  possibilities  of  teaching  civil  government  in  our 
schools.  The  mere  teaching  of  the  text-book  by  assigning  lessons  and 
hearing  the  pupils  recite  what  they  have  learned,  or  committed, 
without  its  application  to  actual  government  as  found  in  the  home, 
the  school,  the  district,  the  town,  the  county,  the  state  and  the  nation, 
will  result  in  scant  knowledge  of  the  subject  of  civics. 

For  example,  the  statement,  "The  functions  of  the  civil  district 
are  judicial  and  executive,  and  lie  within  a  narrow  range,"  will  mean 
very  little  to  the  pupil.  He  must  understand  the  meaning  of  "func- 
tions," "civil  district/'  "judicial,"  "executive,"  and  why  they  "lie 
within  a  narrow  range."  He  must  understand  that  he  lives  in  a  civil 
district,  just  what  it  is,  who  are  its  officers,  how  they  are  elected  or 
appointed,  what  their  powers  and  duties  are,  by  whose  authority  they 
act  and  the  need  of  a  civil  district  as  a  means  of  government.  If 
there  happens  to  be  a  civil  suit  in  the  justice's  court  in  the  com- 
munity, the  class  in  civics  should  be  allowed  to  attend  the  court  so 
that  they  may  see  just  what  is  done.  By  so  doing  they  will  learn 
more  in  an  hour  or  two  by  observation  than  they  could  learn  from 
books  in  a  much  longer  time.  If  the  school  happens  to  be  located  in 
a  town  where  there  is  a  town  council,  the  children  should  be  allowed 
to  attend  some  of  the  meetings  of  the  council.  It  would  be  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  to  learn  how  our  schools  are  managed  if  pupils  could 
attend  a  meeting  of  the  board  of  education.  Pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  make  a  written  report  of  such  visits,  which  reports  may  be 


202 

used  as  regular  class  work  in  language  in  addition  to  the  discussions 
in  the  civics  class. 

The  study  of  civil  government  should  begin  with  the  home,  pro- 
ceed to  the  school,  then  to  the  district,  the  county,  the  state  and  the 
nation.  Fortunately  the  adopted  text  follows  this  order  of  treatment, 
but  no  teacher  should  be  satisfied  with  teaching  merely  what  is  given 
in  the  text,  because  the  textbook  is  only  a  brief  general  outline  of 
the  most  common  forms  of  governmental  control  found  in  this  coun- 
try. Of  course,  the  national  government  is  the  same  over  all  the 
states.  But  beginning  with  the  school  the  pupils  should  understand 
thoroughly  what  constitutes  the  school,  or  sub-district,  who  are  its 
officers,  by  whom  appointed,  how  the  teacher  is  appointed  and  the 
duties  and  powers  of  both  the  trustees  and  the  teacher.  Are  there 
any  other  officers  in  this,  the  smallest  governmental  district? 

Town  OP  City. 

What  is  an  incorporated  town  or  city?  How  may  a  town  or  city 
become  incorporated?  What  control  does  the  state  exercise  over  in- 
corporated towns  and  cities  ?  If  you  live  in  an  incorporated  town  or 
city,  name  all  the  officers  of  the  town  or  city  government.  What  is 
an  independent  school  district?  How  may  an  independent  school 
district  be  created  ?  What  special  privileges  does  such  district  usually 
have? 

Magisterial  District. 

Then  the  class  should  begin  the  study  of  the  magisterial  district. 
Note  that  the  magisterial  and  school  districts  are  the  same.  How 
many  school  or  magisterial  districts  in  the  county?  Who  constitute 
the  board  of  education?  How  do  they  get  their  office?  What  are 
their  duties?  The  length  of  term?  Who  is  the  truant  officer?  What 
are  his  duties  ?  How  appointed  ?  Who  are  the  justices  of  the  peace  and 
constables?  How  elected?  Their  duties?  Term  of  office?  Are  there 
any  other  officers  in  the  magisterial  district?  From  what  sources  are 
the  school  funds  derived?  What  is  the  taxable  valuation  of  the  dis- 
trict ?  What  rate  of  levies  is  laid  on  this  valuation  ?  How  much  money 
is  raised?  What  is  the  total  cost  of  running  the  schools  of  the  district? 
The  total  cost  of  maintaining  your  school  ?  Are  any  other  levies  made 
upon  the  district,  and  if  so,  for  what  purposes? 

The  County. 

Name  of  the  county  officers.  How  are  they  elected  ?  What  are  the 
duties  of  each?  How  is  the  county  court  elected?  What  are  the 


203 

duties  of  the  county  court?  What  levies  are  made  by  the  county 
court?  The  rate  of  these  levies  and  the  amount  of  county  funds 
raised?  For  what  purposes  are  these  funds  expended?  To  what 
extent  does  the  county  exercise  control  over  the  schools?  How  are 
the  roads  in  the  county  maintained  ?  Is  there  a  county  health  officer 
and  if  so  who  is  he?  How  does  he  receive  his  appointment?  What 
are  his  duties  ?  Suppose  the  county  needs  a  court  house  or  a  bridge, 
whose  duty  is  it  to  provide  these? 

The  State. 

Names  of  the  state  officers.  Which  are  elected  and  which  appointed  ? 
If  appointed,  by  whom?  What  are  the  duties  of  each  state  officer? 
Learn  how  the  following  boards  are  elected  or  appointed,  who  con- 
stitute these  boards,  their  term  of  office  and  their  duties: 

The  State  Board  of  Public  Works;  State  Board  of  Regents;  State 
Board  of  Control;  State  Board  of  Education;  Public  Service  Com- 
mission; State  Board  of  Pharmacy;  State  Board  of  Health;  State 
Board  of  Public  Accountants. 

Name  and  give  the  location  of  each  of  the  state  institutions.  Under 
whose  control  is  each  of  the  state  institutions?  What  is  the  purpose 
of  each  ?  What  is  the  financial  cost  of  each  to  the  state  ? 

The  State  Legislature. 

What  is  the  State  Legislature  ?  How  many  senators  and  how  many 
delegates  ?  How  are  these  senators  and  delegates  chosen  ?  How  many 
delegates  from  your  county?  What  counties  constitute  your  sena- 
torial district?  Who  are  your  senators?  How  often  does  the  State 
Legislature  meet?  What  are  its  duties? 

Judicial  Circuits. 

How  many  judicial  circuits  in  West  Virginia?  What  county  or 
counties  constitute  your  judicial  circuit?  Who  is  your  circuit  judge? 
What  are  the  duties  of  the  circuit  judge  ?  What  are  grand  and  petit 
juries  and  what  their  duties?  Does  your  county  have  an  intermedi- 
ate or  criminal  court?  If  so,  who  is  the  judge  and  what  are  his 
duties?  Who  constitute  the  state  supreme  court?  What  are  their 
duties?  Are  they  elected  or  appointed  and  by  whom? 

Federal  Courts. 

What  control  does  the  United  States  exercise  over  West  Virginia? 
Name  of  the  federal  officers  assigned  to  West  Virginia.  Of  what 
federal  courts  is  West  Virginia  a  part,  and  who  are  the  judges  ?  Are 
these  judges  elected  or  appointed,  and  if  appointed,  by  whom? 


204 

Postoffices. 

Under  whose  control  are  our  postoffices?  How  are  postoffices 
classified.  How  many  first  class  postoffices  in  your  country?  How 
are  post  masters  appointed?  Does  the  state  have  anything  at  all  to 
do  with  postomces?  Who  bears  the  expenses  of  postoffices?  What 
are  the  rates  for  sending  various  classes  of  mail  through  the  post- 
offices?  What  is  the  parcel  post? 

The  United  States. 

What  has  been  given  relative  to  district,  county  and  state  govern- 
ment may  be  applied  by  the  teacher  to  the  study  of  United  States 
government.  The  object  of  all  this  study  should  be  to  familiarize 
the  pupils  with  what  is  actually  done,  making  the  study  as  practical 
as  possible  so  that  the  pupils  will  not  be  content  with  merely  learning 
forms  of  government. 

Teach  Civics  in  Terms  of  Everyday  Life. 

The  teaching  of  civics  should  lead  the  pupils  to  understand  both 
their  civic  environment  and  their  civic  duty;  that  is,  how  govern- 
ment of  whatsoever  sort  affects  them  personally  and  at  the  same  time 
how  they  are  expected  as  young  citizens  to  contribute  to  the  general 
welfare  of  the  group,  the  community,  the  district,  the  county,  the 
state  and  the  nation.  They  should  be  led  by  skillful  teaching  to  see 
that  government  as  expressed  in  laws  is  but  the  statement  of  the 
ordinary  rules  of  conduct  towards  civil  authority  that  they  are  ex- 
pected to  observe  in  the  home  and  in  the  school;  that  is,  that  obedi- 
ence to  law  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  observance  of  common 
manners  and  morals  in  every  day  life,  as  applied  to  government  of 
larger  groups.  Eules  and  regulations  in  the  home  and  in  the  school 
are  usually  oral,  their  enforcement  is  by  the  parents  or  the  teacher. 
Laws  are  written  rules  and  regulations  for  the  larger  group,  their 
enforcement  by  civil  authorities. 

As  an  introduction  to  being  good  citizens  the  civics  class  should 
not  only  be  made  acquainted  with  what  government  does,  as  sug- 
gested in  the  first  paragraphs  of  this  outline.  They  should  also  be- 
come familiar  with  what  government  does  not  do.  For  example,  the 
pupils  should  study  the  school  to  see  wherein  it  falls  short  of  what 
it  ought  to  he.  Wherein  is  the  school  weak?  Is  it  weak  for  lack  of 
funds?  Is  the  board  of  education  at  fault?  Wherein  do  the  laws 
of  the  state  handicap  the  progress  of  the  school?  What  could  the 
pupils  themselves  do  to  improve  the  school?  Why  do  some  children 
fail  t->  Mtten.l  school?  Who  is  at  fault?  What  are  the  requirements 


205 

of  the  Compulsory  Attendance  Law?  Should  there  be  a  medical  in- 
spector appointed?  Why?  Would  the  results  justify  the  expense  of 
maintaining  a  medical  inspector?  Take  another  example:  What  is 
the  condition  of  the  roads?  If  poor,  why?  Who  is  responsible  for 
maintaining  passable  roads?  Who  bears  the  expenses  of  improving 
roads  ?  What  would  be  the  cost  of  building  good  roads  in  your  com- 
munity? What  financial  gain  would  come  from  maintaining  good 
roads.  Does  the  county  or  the  state  aid  the  district  in  maintaining 
good  roads?  To  what  extent ?  How  may  this  aid  be  obtained ?  What 
responsibility  do  the  citizens  have  in  improving  roads?  What  may 
the  pupils  do? 

After  this  manner  the  teacher  may  work  out  in  detail  the  various 
other  problems  that  confront  the  people  in  improving  conditions  gen- 
erally, not  only  in  the  local  communities,  but  also  in  the  county  and 
in  the  state.  Such  teaching  will  acquaint  the  children  with  actual 
conditions  and  also  with  ways  and  means  of  improving  these  condi- 
tions. The  children  will  discuss  these  questions  with  tkeir  parents, 
thus  making  them  better  citizens,  and  the  children  themselves  will 
grow  up  to  become  much  better  and  more  intelligent  citizens. 

The  study  of  civil  government  with  a  textbook  begins  with  the 
eighth  grade  and  extends  through  the  year,  the  class  reciting  three 
times  a  week.  The  major  part  of  the  time  should  be  given  to  Part  I 
and  to  the  Supplement  on  History  and  Government  of  West  Vir- 
ginia. The  study  of  the  United  States  Constitution  should  be  de- 
ferred to  the  high  school.  Pages  227-235  should  be  omitted  entirely, 
since  all  pupils  study  State  History  as  a  separate  subject. 


STATE  HISTORY 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 
General  Directions. 

Text:    Lewis'  History  and  Government  of  West  Virginia. 
Suggestions  to  teachers: 

1.  State  history  should  be  taught  only  in  the  second  half  of  the 
eighth  grade. 

2.  Select  the  essential  facts  of  West  Virginia  history  and  teach 
these  thoroughly. 

3.  Correlate  state  history  with  United  States  history  and  civil 
government  wherever  possible  to  do  so. 

West  Virginia  is  yet  in  her  youth.  She  has  not  made  enough 
history  to  merit  a  full  year's  study  by  elementary  grade  pupils.  Here- 
tofore, a  great  deal  of  time  has  been  wasted  in  the  study  of  the  lives 
of  men  of  no  great  historical  importance  and  in  the  study  of  events 
and  dates  that  have  had  little  bearing  on  West  Virginia  history. 
Since  all  eighth  grade  pupils  study  civil  government,  that  part  of  the 
text  from  page  274  to  the  end  need  not  be  considered  at  all. 

The  teacher  should  be  the  judge  as  to  what  part  of  the  text, 
pages  1-274,  should  receive  emphasis.  She  must  select  the  topics 
which  have  the  greatest  historical  significance  and  then  supplement 
these  by  references  to  other  books  and  to  other  sources  of  informa- 
tion, such  as  local  records  and  state  documents. 

Chapter  I  may  be  studied  in  connection  with  state  geography. 
Chapter  III  may  be  omitted,  since  this  information  can  be  obtained  in 
connection  with  United  States  history.  Only  the  most  important 
events  outlined  in  Chapters  IV  and  V  should  be  studied.  Chapters 
II,  VI  and  VIII  should  be  studied  as  a  unit  and  correlated  with 
United  States  history.  Chapters  IX  to  XIV  inclusive  should  be 
studied  in  connection  with  United  States  history,  or  as  a  review  of 
such  events  of  our  national  history  as  have  affected  the  history  of 
West  Virginia. 

West  Virginia  history  really  begins  with  Chapter  XVI  and  ex- 
tends through  Chapter  XXV.  However,  even  these  chapters  have 
many  events  and  items  recorded  that  are  of  small  historic  interest 
or  value.  The  aim  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  teach  the  pupils  what 


207 

conditions  led  to  the  formation  of  West  Virginia  as  a  separate  state, 
what  made  its  formation  and  admission  possible,  and  how  it  organ- 
ized a  separate  state  government,,  all  of  which  must  be  closely  corre- 
lated with  United  States  history  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War. 

The  history  of  any  state  is  for  the  most  part  merely  incidental  to 
national  history.  By  reading  the  text  carefully  you  will  note  how 
true  this  is  in  the  case  of  West  Virginia.  Hence,  the  importance, 
even  the  necessity,  of  correlating  closely  «tate  history  with  United 
States  history'. 

Take,  for  example,  Chapter  IV  of  the  text,  Exploration  and  First 
Permanent  Settlement.  The  events  outlined  in  this  chapter  will  have 
little  meaning  to  the  class  unless  they  are  led  to  understand  that  what 
happened  here  in  West  Virginia  was  only  a  part  of  a  single  great 
movement — namely,  the  extension  of  white  settlements  westward  all 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  colonies.  Or,  when  the  class  study  the 
Indians,  and  the  struggle  of  the  white  man  in  driving  them  farther 
and  farther  westward  until  after  the  great  battle  of  Pt.  Pleasant  they 
gave  up  further  attempts  to  occupy  West  Virginia  territory,  unless 
the  class  understand  thoroughly  that  this  struggle  of  the  white  men 
of  West  Virginia  with  the  Indians  was  merely  a  part  of  the  general 
movement  all  along  the  eastern  border  of  the  colonies  to  drive  the 
Indians  westward  so  that  the  white  men  could  possess  the  lands  then 
occupied  by  the  Indians,  the  pupils  will  not  get  an  exact  conception 
of  what  was  going  on  even  here  in  West  Virginia  at  that  time.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  impossible  to  lead  the  pupils  to  a  correct  understand- 
ing of  the  situation  which  made  West  Virginia  a  separate  state  un- 
less the  class  correlate  their  study  at  this  point  closely  with  United 
States  history. 

Since  June  20,  1863,  West  Virginia's  history  may  be  best  studied 
by  grouping  all  events  under  two  main  lines  of  development — indus- 
trial and  educational. 

If  the  study  of  our  state  history  is  directed  as  indicated  here,  the 
children  will 'be  enabled  to  learn  much  more  in  much  less  time  than 
heretofore. 


PHYSIOLOGY 


FIRST,   SECOND,   AND  THIRD  GRADES. 

Time:     Fifteen  minutes  once  a  week  at  the  nature  study  period. 

Course:  Simple  facts  concerning  the  body,  its  growth  and  care, 
divided  into  topics  as  follows: 

Note:  Teachers  wishing  information  on  these  topics  will  find  at 
the  end  of  each  topic  the  chapter  or  page  designated  in  Hygiene  and 
Sanitation — the  adopted  text. 

The  Body. 

Composed  of  flesh,  nerves,  and  bones.  Location,  name  and  use  of 
the  chief  parts  and  organs — head,  brain,  trunk,  heart,  lungs,  stom- 
ach, etc. 

Principal  uses  are  motion,  respiration,  nutrition,  excretion  and 
sensations,  or  to  enable  us  to  move,  breathe,  eat  in  order  to  grow,  to 
cast  off  impurities,  and  to  hear,  see,  feel  and  think.  Chapter  II  Prim- 
er of  Hygiene. 

The  Growth  of  the  Body. 

In  order  that  the  body  may  grow  it  needs  good  food,  pure  air,  pure 
water,  exercise  ard  rest. 

Develop  these  in  the  order  given  and  contrast  good  and  bad  foods, 
etc.,  so  as  to  make  clear  to  the  child  the  necessity  of  each.  Chapter 
III  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

General  Note  to  the  Teacher. 

Though  the  work  is  here  definitely  outlined  it  does  not  preclude  the 
teacher's  giving  hygienic  instruction  when  the  opportunity  presents 
itself. 

Examples :  Headache  caused  by  late  hours.  A  sick  stomach  caused 
by  over-eating. 

Should  a  pupil  come  to  school  with  wet  feet,  the  teacher  should 
not  only  see  that  this  condition  is  removed,  but  show  the  bad  effects 
of  same.  Or, 

Should  a  pupil  accidentally  cut  or  tear  his  flesh,  the  teacher  should 
not  only  be  able  to  dress  the  wound  properly,  but  make  this  an  occa- 
sion for  an  object  lesson  for  the  school. 


209 
Food  and  Its  Uses  to  the  Body. 

Talk  about  the  necessity  of  food  for  growth  and  repair;  cause  of 
hunger;  digestion,  absorption  and  assimilation  of  food;  how  to  aid 
digestion;  importance  of  such  foods  as  milk,  eggs,  bread  and  butter, 
meat,  fruits,  vegetables,  salads,  oils  and  nuts;  dangers  of  tea,  coffee 
and  alcoholic  drinks;  unsanitary  soda  fountain  and  drinks. 

Hygiene;  need  of  eating  slowly  and  chewing  thoroughly;  why  we 
should  not  over-eat,  especially  of  such  foods  as  pie,  cake,  candy, 
pickles,  etc.,  of  green  or  decayed  fruit,  of  tainted  and  adulterated 
foods;  regularity  of  eating,  sleeping,  studying,  movement  of  the  in- 
testines to  get  rid  of  waste  matter,  neglect  of  which  may  cause  appen- 
dicitis and  other  intestinal  trouble.  Chapter  III  and  VIII,  Primer 
of  Hygiene. 

Care  and  Preparation  of  Food. 

The  Care  of  Milk:  Why  milk  delivered  in  bottles  is  cleaner  than 
milk  delivered  in  cans;  why  it  should  be  cooled  and  kept  cool;  need 
for  cleanliness  at  the  dairy ;  how  to  keep  it  clean  and  pure  at  home ; 
how  eggs,  butter,  meat,  bread,  berries  and  fruits  should  be  handled 
and  kept;  why  food  is  cooked ;  why  fried  foods  are  not  the  best;  why 
simply  prepared  foods  are  best.  Chapter  V  and  VII,  Primer  of 
Hygiene. 

Our  Meals  and  When  to  Eat. 

Breakfast:  Fresh  fruit  (apple,  orange,  bananas),  some  cereal  with 
milk  or  cream,  eggs,  toast  and  a  glass  of  milk;  bread  and  coffee  are 
not  sufficient,  the  latter  being  injurious  to  children. 

Noon  Meal :  Lettuce,  egg  or  meat  sandwiches,  fruits,  nuts,  milk 
chocolate  or  cheese  make  an  appetizing  and  nutritious  lunch ;  a  lunch 
containing  much  pie,  cake,  pickles,  etc.,  is  not  a  good  one. 

Evening  Meal:  Soup,  meat  or  fish,  bread,  vegetables,  fruit,  with 
ices  or  light  pudding  for  dessert,  make  an  excellent  dinner. 

Strong,  healthy  and  beautiful  bodies  depend  largely  upon  the  right 
choice  of  food  at  daily  meals. 

Do  not  eat  between  meals  to  keep  from  getting  hungry.  Wait  until 
you  are  hungry. 

Necessity  for  clean  face  and  hands  when  eating. 

How  to  care  for  the  dishes ;  proper  method  of  washing  dishes. 
Chapters  V  and  VIII,  Primer  of  Hygiene,  and  chapter  XXX  Primer 
of  Sanitation. 


210 

Pure  Air  and  Its  Use  to  the  Body. 

Why  we  need  a  constant  supply  of  air;  out-door  air  the  best;  ways 
of  ventilating  occupied  rooms  to  secure  pure  air;  why  the  air  in  an 
unventilated  room  is  not  pure;  the  need  of  a  thermometer;  why  the 
heated  room  should  be  kept  at  from  65  to  70  degrees ;  why  air  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  too  dry. 

The  need  of  keeping  the  windows  of  one's  sleeping  room  open  at 
night.  Pure  cool  air  is  a  great  aid  in  keeping  good  health  and  good 
appearance. 

Breathing. 

Correct  position  best  for  breathing  and  for  good  appearance  as 
well;  why  breathe  through  the  nose  and  keep  both  nostrils  open;  the 
value  of  exercise  to  improve  posture  and  increase  lung  capacity ;  harm 
from  tight  clothing;  why  over-exertion,  such  as  long  runs,  and  vio- 
lent exercise  is  not  good  for  the  growing  child.  Chapters  X  and  XI, 
Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Water  and  Its  Use  to  the  Body. 

Necessity  for  pure  water;  why  the  body  needs  plenty  of  water; 
when  drinking  water  should  be  boiled;  why  drinking  much  at  meals 
is  not  advisable;  why  it  is  needful  to  bathe  and  when;  use  of  soap; 
hot  water  bottle  and  its  use  in  relieving  pain ;  necessity  for  individual 
drinking  cups.  Chapter  XX,  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Care  of  the  Body. 

Uses  of  the  skin,  hair  and  finger  nails  and  care  of  each.  Chapter 
XV,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Teeth:  Value  in  preparing  food  for  digestion;  causes  and  cure 
of  irregular  teeth ;  causes  of  decay ;  when  and  how  to  clean  the  teeth ; 
necessity  for  taking  care  of  the  temporary  teeth ;  the  first  permanent 
teeth;  why  the  teeth  should  be  examined  by  the  dentist  and  filling 
done  at  least  twice  a  year.  Chapter  IX,,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Eyes:  Ways  of  protecting  the  eyes;  evidences  of  the  need  of 
glasses;  why  spectacles  are  preferable  to  glasses;  care  of  glasses; 
examine  for  trachoma.  Chapter  XXIV,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Ears:  Care  of,  common  injuries  to;  signs  of  defective  hearing; 
why  consult  a  physician  when  symptoms  are  recognized.  Chapter 
XXV,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Clothing:  Kinds  and  advantages  of  each;  differences  for  cold  and 
warm  weather;  need  for  underclothing;  kinds  and  advantages;  need 
for  rubbers  in  wet  weather,  should  not  be  kept  on  while  indoors ;  im- 


portance  of  keeping  the  body  dry  and  free  from  colds.  Chapter  XVI, 
Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Cleanliness :  Necessity  for  clean  homes,  clean  yards,  clean  streets ; 
why  rugs  are  better  than. carpets;  advantages  of  vacuum  cleaner  and 
moist  cloth  for  dusting;  vigorous  -health  the  best  preventive  of  any 
disease;  how  the  house-fly  spreads  disease  and  how  to  combat  it; 
dangers  in  handling  the  dirty  cat  or  dirty  dog.  Chapter  XXIX, 
Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Accidents :  What  to  do  in  case  of  cuts,  bruises,  burns ;  why  cuts 
should  be  cleansed  and  covered;  danger  of  scratching  off  scab  with 
finger  nails;  necessity  for  using  clean  cloths;  possible  danger  from 
rusty  nails ;  what  to  do  if  clothing  catches  fire ;  why  boys  and  girls 
should  learn  to  swim;  dangers  from  electric  wires;  danger  from  dog 
bites.  Chapter  XXVI,  Primer  of  Hygiene. 

Accidents  and  Emergencies. 

In  every  schoolhouse  there  should  be  the  following  emergency  out- 
fit and  every  teacher  should  know  how  to  use  its  contents.  The  reme- 
dies should  be  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  anxious  children. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  camphor. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  arnica. 

4  oz.  bottle  of  witch  hazel. 

1  oz.  bottle  of  collodion. 

1  pair  of  sharp  scissors. 

Package  of  absorbent  cotton. 

Roll  of  clean  linen  or  soft  cotton  for  bandages. 

Sheet  of  surgeon's  rubber  adhesive  plaster. 

Needle  and  thread. 

An  antiseptic  plaster  or  dressing  for  a  wound  may  be  made  as  fol- 
lows: After  cleansing  the  wound  thoroughly  with  cold  water,  put 
enough  of  the  absorbent  cotton  over  the  wound  to  cover  it  completely. 
Drop  collodion  on  the  cotton  until  it  %  saturated.  With  the  fingers 
press  the  cotton  gently  but  firmly  upon  the  wound  and  let  it  dry 
there.  This  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  antiseptic  plasters.  A 
clean  linen  or  cotton  bandage  may  be  wrapped  about  the  wound  if  it 
is  severe. 

• 

Exercise,  Rest  and  Sleep. 

Exercise :  Why  needed,  kinds  and  advantages  of  out-of-door  exer- 
cise. 

Rest  and  Sleep :  Why  needed ;  illness  often  avoided  by  taking  reg- 
ular and  proper  amount  of  sleep;  best  time  to  sleep;  amount  of  sleep; 


212 

why  students  should  not  keep  late  hours.  Chapter  XX,  Primer  of 
Hygiene. 

The  joy  of  health  and  strength,  happiness  and  satisfaction,  ability 
to  look,  do,  and  be  our  best. 

Health  and  strength  the  natural  result  of  the  wise  use  of  food,  air, 
water,  exercise  and  rest;  individual  responsibility  of  clean,  pure, 
healthy  bodies.  Chapter  XXXII,  Primer  of  Sanitation. 

Suggestions  oil  Exercise. 

It  is  impossible  to  outline  a  course  on  physical  exercise  within  the 
space  allotted  here,  but  it  is  suggested  that  the  teacher  make  a  spe- 
cial effort  to  enter  into  and  direct  the  play  of  her  pupils.  Especially 
should  the  teacher  be  prepared  to  direct  the  play  on  rainy  and  bad 
days  when  the  pupils  must  stay  within  doors.  The  teacher  also  needs 
the  exercise.  She  can  do  better  work  together  with  her  pupils  after 
participating  in  a  game  that  calls  into  use  the  muscles  of  the  body. 

There  are  many  indoor  games  which  are  full  of  action.  See  to  it 
that  the  children  get  some  vigorous  play  at  the  recesses  and  at  such 
other  times  as  the  teacher  thinks  best. 

For  a  complete  list  of  indoor  as  well  as  outdoor  games  with  com- 
plete instructions  for  playing,  see  "Games  for  the  Playground,  Home, 
School  and  Gymnasium/'  by  Jessie  H.  Bancroft.  Price  $1.50.  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Or,  Johnson's  "What  to  Do  at  Ke- 
cess."  Price  25  cents.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

As  a  rule  the  calisthenics  given  in  the  school  room  is  not  enjoyed 
by  the  pupils  and  is  of  very  little  benefit  to  them.  Play  is  the  natural 
exercise  for  the  child.  Chapters  XVII,  XVIII  and  XXVII,  Primer 
of  Hygiene. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

The  Ritchie-Caldwell  Primer  of  Hygiene  is  introduced.  The  text 
adopted  has  Primer  of  Hygiene  and  Primer  of  Sanitation  bound  in 
a  single  volume.  The  fourth  year's  work  should  cover  the  first  twenty- 
one  chapters,  or  pages  1-102  inclusive. 

One  lesson  a  week  should  be  given  at  one  of  the  nature  study 
periods,  and  it  should  be  given  on  the  same  day  each  week. 

The  pupil  need  not  be  required  to  purchase  a  textbook,  but  the 
teacher  should  have  one. 

The  teacher  should  be  so  familiar  with  the  subject  matter  that  she 
can  lay  aside  the  text  and  give  a  talk  or  conduct  an  oral  lesson. 

Supplement  the  text  from  other  sources  when  possible.     Make  the 


213 

work  as  concrete  as  possible  by  demonstrations.  Have  the  children 
participate  in  these  lessons. 

The  textbook  is  simple  and  suggestive  as  to  the  method  of  presen- 
tation, so  that  the  teacher  can  follow  its  plan  without  further  sug- 
gestions. 

Try  to  have  the  pupils  practice  what  they  find  out  to  be  necessary 
in  order  to  be  strong  and  happy. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

The  Primer  of  Hygiene  should  be  completed  in  the  fifth  year,  Chap- 
ters XXII  to  XXXIV.  pages  103-179  inclusive. 

One  lesson  per  week  at  the  period  assigned  to  nature  study. 

Whenever  references  are  made  to  parts  of  the  body,  or  other  things 
which  the  child  may  not  understand,  the  teacher  should  make  careful 
explanations. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Primer  of  Sanitation  is  the  text.  First  half  year,  pp.  1-100,  sec- 
ond half  year,  pp.  100-194.  One  lesson  each  week. 

Care  should  be  taken  here,  as  before,  that  pupils  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  pictures,  drawings,  diagrams,  etc.,  that  will  help  to 
make  clear  the  subject  matter.  When  possible  bring  in  objects  illus- 
trating the  lesson  or  take  the  pupils  out  to  observe  sanitary  or  unsani- 
tary conditions.  Have  the  pupils  make  observations  and  investiga- 
tions and  make  written  reports. 

The  aim  is  to  get  the  pupil  to  apply  the  principles  learned  so  that 
his  health  and  that  of  his  associates  at  home  and  elsewhere  will 
show  improvement.  Stimulate  the  desire  of  the  pupil  to  be  well,  to 
apply  hygienic  principles  to  his  own  living,  so  that  it  will  result  in 
fixed  habits  of  right  living. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Ritchie-CaldwelPs  Human  Physiology,  complete,  five  times  a  week. 

Topics  that  are  already  understood  from  the  lessons  of  the  two 
Primers  should  be  given  less  time,  otherwise  the  book  cannot  be  com- 
pleted. 

A  fairly  strong  drill  on  anatomy  and  physiology  as  given  in  the 
textbook  should  be  required. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  some 
more  comprehensive  texts  on  the  subject. 

Pupils  from  the  seventh  grade  may  be  allowed  to  take  this  work, 
thus  eliminating  physiology  from  this  grade  every  other  year. 


DRAWING 


GENERAL.  DISCUSSION. 
Aims  and  General  Methods. 

The  aim  of  art  in  the  elementary  school  is  to  afford  esthetic  and 
artistic  development,  which  involves  the  appreciation  of  art  as  well  as 
expression.  Since  art,  from  its  very  nature,  expresses  the  interest  of 
the  artist,  the  subject  matter  and  method  must  grow  out  of  the  organ- 
ized life  and  experiences  of  the  individual  school. 

The  planning  of  a  course  of  art  instruction  will  involve  such  ques- 
tions as  age,  motive,  subject  matter,  method,  technique.  The  first 
four  may  be  left  to  the  school,  or  the- teacher,  but  certain  .phases  of 
"art  expression  must  be  emphasized  throughout  the  grades  so  as  to 
insure  continued  growth  and  satisfactory  control. 

Rules  and  principles  have  no  place  in  the  primary 'grades.  Do  not 
expect  accuracy  or  try  to  force  it.  The  chief  purpose  of  drawing  for 
children  is  accomplished  if  the  work  develops  facility  in  expressing 
ideas,  a  ready  response  of  the  hand  to  the  thought.  This  is  gained 
only  by  much  drawing. 


FIRST  GKADE  POSTER  CUT  FROM  SAMPLES  OF  WALL  PAPER. 


215 


A  well  balanced  course  of  study  should  include  (a)  Representa- 
tion, (b)  Construction,  (c)  Design.  For  convenience  we  will  treat 
these  separately,  although  they  may  be  closely  correlated  in  teaching. 

Representation:     Should  include: 

(a)  Drawing  from  type  solids  and  common   objects  of  similar 
shape. 

(b)  Theory  of  perspective. 

(c)  Drawing  from  memory  and  dictation. 

(d)  Drawing  from  plant  and  animal  forms. 

(e)  The  principles  of  arrangement. 

Representation  includes  the  study  of  the  appearance  of  objects  in 
regard  to  size,  form,  proportion,  position,  texture,  tone  and  color,  also 
such  qualities  as  growth,  construction,  and  action.  Its  aim  is  to  cul- 
tivate accurate  observation  and  memorizing  of  common  forms  in  their 
ordinary  positions  and  surroundings. 


F,<j  I 


FIG.  1.     INCORRECT  SPACE  RELATIONS  OR  ARRANGEMENT. 
FIGS.  2  &  3.     CORRECT  SPACE  RELATIONS  AND  ARRANGEMENT. 

The  problems  involve  the  foreshortened  circle  and  the  perspective 
of  surfaces. 

Design:  The  purpose  of  all  design  in  its  broadest  sense  is  two- 
fold :  It  must  produce  an  article  and  make  it  as  beautiful  as  possible. 

Construction :  This  branch  of  the  subject  in  the  elementary  school 
should  be  confined  to  the  planning  of  a  few  simple  objects  of  interest 
and  use  to  the  child,  such  as  a  pencil  box,  bird  house,  envelope,  book 
cover  or  booklet. 

The  accurate  use  of  the  ruler  should  be  taught—appropriate  and 
beautiful  shapes  and  proportions— materials. 

FIRST  GRADE. 

Representation:  In  plant  life  observe  the  simpler  types  of  trees, 
such  as  the  maple,  apple,  cedar,  poplar.  Compare  their  shapes  and 


216 

proportions.  Study  leaves  of  the  peach,  apple,  nasturtium  for  their 
form  and  proportion.  Study  plants  and  grasses  for  their  direction  of 
growth;  study  flowers  of  simple  construction,  for  form  and  color; 
study  also  fruits  and  vegetables,  for  form  and  color. 

Animal  drawing  should  include  the  general  characteristics  of  ani- 
mals: Shape  of  body,  head,  feet,  tail,  ears,  nose. 

In  drawing  the  human  figure  begin  with  the  manikin,  or  "stick 
man."  In  this,  proportion  of  the  body  and  action  are  represented. 
Follow  with  poses  illustrating  action,  walking,  running,  jumping. 
Illustrate  games  and  stories  with  these  illustrations. 

Construction:  The  problems  in  this  grade  should  involve  measur- 
ing to  the  inch.  The  subjects  should  be  simple  articles  for  the  play- 
house, to  be  done  in  paper  folding,  without  pasting. 

Booklets  may  be  tied  together,  and  mats  woven  and  folded  into  hair 
receivers,  handkerchief  cases,  etc. 

The  Progressive  Drawing  Books  are  rich  in  material  and  directions 
for  this  work. 


CONVENTIONAL  DESIGN  FOE  CUSHION. 

For  an  illustration  let  us  make  a  handkerchief  case.  First  lead 
the  children  to  determine  the  size :  six  inch ;  shape,  square.  Take  a 
square  piece  of  paper,  find  the  center,  fold  each  corner  to  the  center 
which  may  be  found  by  fold  on  the  diagonals.  Now  estimate  the  size 
of  the  square  of  material  required  to  make  it.  Use  plain  material, 
such  as  cambric,  linen,chambray  of  grayish  color  and  not  too  dark. 
Cut  it  the  desired  size  and  mark  off  each  inch  around  the  edge.  (This 
is  to  space  it  for  the  decoration,  which  may  be  done  by  stick  printing, 
cross  stitch,  or  an  embroidered  dot.) 


217 

If  you  are  teaching  sewing,  this  will  afford  a  lesson  in  hemming 
arid  cross  stitch. 

Decorative  Design :  Measure  inch  spaces  for  borders.  This  may  be 
done  both  by  folding  and  by  measuring  with  the  ruler.  Units  to  be 
placed  at  these  measurements  or  in  spaces  between  may  be  spots  of 
any  shape,  straight  lines,  or  nature  forms. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

Representation :  This  should  be  a  continuation  of  first  grade. 
Lead  the  child  to  more  accurate  representation  of  objects,  but  the  type 
of  objects  should  be  kept  quite  as  simple  and  no  more  problems  added. 
Let  the  composition  work  be  simply  the  selection  of  paper,  the  cor- 
rect size  and  shape  for  the  object  to  be  drawn. 

Construction :  This  work  may  be  the  same  as  the  first  year,  with 
the  addition  of  half  inch  measurement.  Instead  of  the  handkerchief 
case,  an  envelope  or  folder  for  drawings  may  be  made  in  a  similar 
way. 


DESIGNS  MADE  BY  FOLDING  PAPER  AS  IN  THE  DIRECTIONS  FOR  BOOK-ENDS. 

The  amount  of  work  and  the  variety  will  not  depend  on  the  num- 
ber of  things  taught,  but  on  the  kind  of  school  and  the  interest  taken 
by  the  teacher.  A  few  essential  things  well  done  with  lots  of  drill  and 
variety  of  application  will  be  worth  far  more  than  an  abundance  of 
unrelated  things  that  make  merely  a  showing. 

Design:  Continue  borders;  using  simple  units  in  "repeat"  pat- 
>erns.  Try  to  get  an  orderly  arrangement.  The  units  must  not  be 
crowded  in  nor  yet  too  far  apart.  The  border  must  be  kept  in  good 
proportion,  that  is,  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  object  to  be  decorated. 
It  must  show  that  it  is  a  border  and  not  an  "all  over"  pattern.  Sim- 


218 


pie,  straight-line  letters  may  constitute  the  entire  decoration  of  some 
of  the  book  covers. 


UNIT  FROM  NURSERY  RHYMES  SHOWING  THE  SIMPLE  REPEAT  BORDER.     GOOD 
SPACE  RELATIONS  AND  RYTHM. 

One  of  the  primary  colors  or  any  one  of  the  standard  colors  (red, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  violet)  may  be  used  with  a  gray  (not  too  dark 
or  too  light)  of  harmonious  tone. 

(Use  border  of  pigs,  suggesting  unit  from  nursery  rhyme,  and 
illustrating  good  spacing  and  rhythm.) 

THIRD  GRADE. 

Eepresentation :  In  plant  life  study  characteristics  of  growth  and 
the  relative  size  of  parts,  tones.  Show  dark,  stem  and  leaves  with 
lighter  flower.  The  same  subjects  should  be  used  as  in  first  and 
second  grades,  but  varying  with  the  interests  of  the  class. 

Construction:  Teach  accurate  measuring  to  the  half  inch.  Plan 
articles  to  be  made  that  will  involve  the  half  inch.  A  booklet  with 
the  cover  to  extend  beyond  the  pages  one-half  inch,  or  a  box  for  pen- 
cils with  one-half  inch  lap  to  be  pasted  at  corners. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  BOOKLETS. 

Children  can  in  very  early  years  be  led  to  exercise  judgment  in  the 
selection  of  appropriate  materials  as  well  as  size,  shape  and  propor- 
tion. Even  though  all  these  be  dictated  by  the  teacher,  the  child  can 
be  led  to  see  why  they  are  chosen. 

Design:  The  problem  for  decoration  in  grade  three  should  be  a 
surface  pattern  for  the  box  and  book  cover.  Select  a  material  of 


soft  gray  color  or  a  neutral.     Decide  upon  the  space  to  be  decorated 
and  mark  the  entire  space  with  dots  one  half  inch  apart.     Place  the 


A  WELL  BALANCED  CALENDAR. 

unit  in  alternating  squares,  or  upon  each  alternating  spot.    Use  only 
one  color  with  gray  or  two  tones  of  one  color. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

Representation:  Study  plant  life  for  the  appearance  of  form. 
Draw  in  large  masses  plants  showing  turned  leaves  and  flowers  rep- 
resenting them  just  as  they  appear. 

Type  solids  and  similar  objects  may  be  drawn  for  form  and  pro- 
portion in  two  dimensions  only,  pleasing  shapes  of  bowls  and  vases 
may  be  used.  These  may  show  light  and  dark  against  a  background 
of  a  third  tone. 

Tones  in  landscape  may  be  studied.  Draw  sky  light,  ground  mid- 
dle tone  with  dark  trees.  An  outline  of  good  composition  may  be 
given  to  the  class  from  the  board  to  be  worked  out  in  flat  washes. 

Construction :  Measure  to  one-fourth  inch  and  the  foot.  Measure 
the  room,  articles  of  furniture.  Teach  the  symbols  for  foot  (')  and 
inch  (").  Drill  in  measuring  accurately  with  the  eye. 

A  nice  problem  for  this  grade  is  construction  of  frames  for  weav- 
ing. These  should  be  of  card  board,  with  notched  ends  or  holes 


220 


EXAMPLES  OF  THE  DECORATIVE  LANDSCAPE  AND  PLANT. 

punched,  or  of  wooden  frame  with  tacks  at  each  end.  The  article 
to  be  woven  will  determine  size  and  proportion.  If  sufficient  equip- 
ment can  be  had,  kites  or  sleds  may  be  planned. 


—   to  bt  Ipta  at  — 


dote  jje  ti$M*l 
o{ 


DECORATIVE  PAGE  SHOWING  PROBLEM  IN  ADAPTING  A  FLOWER  STUDY  FROM 
NATURE  TO  A  DECORATIVE  COMPOSITION. 

Design :  The  design  in  each  grade  is  to  be  closely  related  to  repre- 
sentation and  construction.  If  the  class  is  interested  in  weaving,  the 
problem  may  be  matching  colors  to  be  used,  and  border  ends  for  rugs 


221 

or  mats;  bags  for  books  or  change.    Again  use  a  grayish  color  for  the 
body  and  brighter  colors  for  the  stripes. 

Decorative  landscapes  or  flowers  to  be  used  in  decorating  the  book- 
let, calendars  or  cards  may  be  made.  For  the  landscape,  select  a  com- 
position of  few  elements:  sky,  ground,  trees,  but  with  good  lines- 
and  space  relations.  Paint  in  flat  tones  with  water  color  or  crayons. 
This  may  be  done  in  two  or  three  tones  of  gray  or  of  one  color.  If 
all  the  forms  are  outlined  with  a  dark  uniform  line,  called  the  "deco- 
rator's line,"  the  work  will  be  more  effective. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Representation:  In  plant  life  continue  the  observation  of  form 
proportion,  relative  size  of  parts.  Introduce  in  outline  the  charac- 
ter of  joints,  bracts  and  sheaths.  Flowers  and  trees  may  be  drawn, 
showing  individual  character :  flowers  and  leaves  may  show  for  short- 
ened position;  trees  may  show  character  of  branching. 

Object  drawing  should  involve  the  study  of  the  circle  at  different 
elevations  and  positions.  Type  solids  should  be  used  first,  then  simi- 
lar objects  without  handles,  spouts,  etc.  Large  objects  should  be 
used  and  exercises  or  "seeing"  lessons  before  attempting  to  draw. 

Construction :  Make  a  working  drawing  for  an  object  of  two  di- 
mensions :  a  calendar  or  book  cover,  blotter  pad,  portfolio. 

Design :  This  work  may  be  a  continuation  of  grade  four.  If  you 
select  the  decorative  flower  and  landscape,  vary  the  work  just  enough 
to  insure  interest.  It  is  quite  hard  enough  to  adapt  the  arrange- 
ments used  to  be  colored.  If  you  know  color  well,  the  complimentary 
colors  could  be  introduced,  as  orange  and  blue  for  an  autumn  scene 
or  gray  blue  background  for  a  yellow  chrysanthemum. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Representation:  Continue  plant  life  from  the  fifth  grade,  intro- 
ducing "accent/'  Work  for  quality  of  line  in  pencil,  keeping  the  lines 
in  gray  tones,  accenting  where  the  shadows  appear.  Shade  the  leaves 
and  flowers. 

In  object  drawing,  look  for  shadow  on  the  object,  also  the  cast 
shadow  on  the  table  by  its  side.  Remember  it  is  foreshadowed  as  well 
as  the  circle,  and  always  represent  it  with  a  horizontal  stroke. 

(Use  drawing  of  rose  to  illustrate,  quality  of  line,  accent,  shading 
and  position  on  paper.  A  simpler  type  of  flower  could  be  used,  how- 
ever.) 

Construction :     Measure  to  one-eighth  inch.     Draw  to  scale.     Con- 


i  0  T  ES 


A  NUMBER  OF  WAYS  TO  TIE  AND  DECORATE  A  BOOKLET. 

tinue  the  work  of  grade  five,  insisting  on  more  and  more  accurate 
drawing. 

Plan  a  box  or  bird  house  and  make  a  drawing  of  each  side  on  a 
small  scale.  A  portfolio  or  book  cover  could  be  planned  and  drawn 
to  scale. 


223 

Plans  for  these  may  be  dictated  by  the  teacher  or  designed  by  the 
pupils,  depending  upon  the  amount  of  time  given  to  the  subject. 

Design:  Continue  the  work  in  decorative  arrangement  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  special  interest  of  this  grade. 

Conventional  units  may  be  adapted  to  corners  for  portfolio.  Leaves 
are  perhaps  the  simplest  subject,  but  remember  to  subordinate  all 
detail  and  proportions  to  the  shape  of  the  space  to  be  decorated.  Ex- 
cellent directions  for  formal  decorations  for  corners  by  paper  cutting 
are  given  in  the  Prang  Books. 

A  more  formal  study  of  lettering  may  be  taken  up  in  this  grade. 
Teach  correct  spacing  and  unity.  Often  an  object  well  lettered  is 
far  more  beautiful  than  one  too  elaborately  decorated. 


A  VAEIETY  OF  CORNERS  DESIGNED  BY  FOLDING  AND  CUTTING  THE  TRIANGLE. 

Monograms  and  personal  marks  can  be  made  by  changing  the  pro- 
portions of  the  initials  to  fit  different  proportions  of  the  rectangle, 
-circle  and  triangle. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Eepresentation :  Continue  practice  in  outline  drawing,  strengthen- 
ing the  work  with  accented  lines  where  necessary.  More  complex 
forms  may  be  introduced  giving  a  special  study  to  spouts,  handles 
and  rims.  Where  a  great  deal  of  time  is  given  to  drawing,  and  equip- 
ment may  be  had,  a  study  of  the  arch  could  be  incidentally  iritro- 


224: 


duced.  Form  and  proportion  must  be  continually  kept  in  mind. 
There  should  be  no  drawing  of  details  without  a  correct  foundation. 
Construction:  Without  tools,  objects  of  the  same  construction  as 
in  grade  six,  or  articles  involving  the  circle,  such  as  lamp  and  candle 
shades,  may  be  made.  These  may  be  constructed  of  heavy  paper,  or 
card  board  with  the  decoration  cut  out  and  lined  with  thin  material 
or  oiled  paper. 


C0 

OLD  HARPER'S  FERRY  RIFLE. 


SUGGESTION  FOR  HISTORY. 


The  introduction  of  tools,  the  compass,  tee-square,  and  triangles 
should  be  made  here,  and  the  lines  of  the  working  drawing  well  un- 
derstood. 

Design:  Make  a  neutral  scale  with  about  nine  steps  from  black 
to  white.  These  will  be  named  white,  high-light,  light,  low- 
light,  middle  tone,  high-dark,  dark,  low-dark,  black.  In  making  your 
decorations,  select  harmonious  tones  from  this  scale.  Use  both  neu- 
tral washes  and  monochrome. 


0  FELLOWSHIP. 

ABG. 

no 

BV 

EASTER. 


A  SUGGESTIVE  POSTER. 
SEE  How  MANY  THINGS  CAN  BE  MADE  FROM  THE  SAME  ARRANGEMENT. 

Make  flower  composition  in  silhouette.    Make  studies  of  vases  and 
bowls  arranged  in  circular  or  rectangular  frame  and  painted  in  flat 


225 


washes  of  gray,  or  monochrome.    These  arrangements  can  be  adapted 
in  panels  and  borders  to  the  candle  shades. 


ALII 


ADAPTATION  OF  FLO  WEB  FORMS  TO  DECORATION. 
EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Representation:  If  the  pupils  in  this  grade  have  had  sufficient 
experience  in  the  principles  planned  for  the  lower  grades,  they 
may  be  given  more  freedom  and  variety.  Plants  may  be  studied  for 
their  beauty  of  line  and  form,  with  close  observation  and  rendering 
of  color  and  texture.  However,  the  rendering  of  texture  is  more 
easily  taught  in  drawing  the  tree.  Compare  the  bark  of  various  trees. 
Compare  the  texture  of  the  trunk  with  the  mass  of  foliage. 

Construction:  Continue  the  work  of  sixth  and  seventh  grades. 
Become  more  familiar  with  tools  and  more  accurate  in  execution. 
Experience  in  designing  objects  to  be  made  may  be  the  special  work 
of  this. grade.  Forms  for  pottery  and  basketry  or  anything  to  be 
made  in  the  manual  training  shop  are  good. 

The  book-end  and  paper  knife  offer  an  opportunity  for  individual- 
ity. The  paper  knife  is  made  of  any  wood  not  too  hard  to  whittle. 
To  develop  the  design,  make  a  few  sketches  on  paper  or  cut  patterns 
directly  with  the  scissors.  Decide  on  a  definite  size,  then  proceed 
with  shape  and  proportions.  Try  a  variety  of  lengths  for  handle  and 
blade,  then  more  subtle  variety  in  the  contour  of  the  handle. 

A  pair  of  book-ends  are  made  from  a  piece  of  tin,  oblong  in  shape, 


bent  at  right  angles  so  that  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  will  stand 
upright.  The  shape  and  proportions  and  contour  may  be  determined 
by  the  pupil.  These  same  principles  and  problems  are  involved  in  the 


BOOK-ENDS  SHOWING  BI-SYMMETRICAL  UNIT. 

brass,  copper,  and  wood  work.  The  only  difference  being  the  process 
of  application.  The  book-ends  are  to  be  covered  with  linen  and 
decorated. 


PAPEB    KNIFE    PATTERNS     SHOWING    VARIATION 

SAME  FORM. 


OF    FINISH     FROM    THE 


Design:     The  decoration  for  the  book-ends  and  the  paper  knife 
should  be  formal  in  character:  conventional  nature  units  or  abstract 


\\  • 

OUTLINE  FOB  PENCIL  OR  PEN. 


228 

spots.  If  the  class  be  well  acquainted  with  simple  bands  and  corner 
spots,  something  more  difficult  may  be  attempted.  Try  a  bi-symetric 
unit  for  the  entire  surface.  Cut  a  pattern  of  the  form  to  be 
decorated,  fold  through  the  center  vertically.  Take  a  soft  pencil  or 
crayon  and  break  this  space,  drawing  lines  and  spots  similar  to  the 
half  space.  Fold  over  on  the  other  half  and  rub  hard.  This  will 
give  a  pleasing  and  harmonious  pattern  for  the  entire  surface.  This 
may  be  stencilled  on  the  book*end,  and  stained  or  carved  on  the 
knife  handle. 


MUSIC 

GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

The  Value    of  Music. 

Music  holds  an  important  relation  to  schools  on  account  of  its 
moral  power.  Among  all  classes  of  people  in  all  periods  and  condi- 
tions of  life,  we  recognize  the  mysterious  influence  of  music.  We  see 
how  it  calms  the  troubled  mind,  how  it  sheds  cheerfulness  upon  daily 
toil,  how  it  revives  the  drooping  spirit,  how  it  adds  zest  to  social 
amusement,  how  it  carries  the  sweetest  pleasures  into  the  family  cir- 
cle, how  it  lifts  the  rapt  soul  from  the  dull  plains  of  earth  to  the 
celestial  mountains.  The  mother's  lullaby  that  soothes  the  restless 
infant,  the  trumpet  and  drum  that  summon  a  crowd  in  the  street, 
the  merry  glee  that  scatters  joy  amid  the  social  gathering,  the  sere- 
nade that  floats  so  sweetly  on  the  evening  air,  the  thrilling  song  that 
fires  the  patriot's  soul  amid  the  din  of  battle,  the  solemn  hymn  that 
soars  to  heaven  wherever  Christians  meet,  all  reveal  the  mighty  pow- 
er of  music.  It  saves  the  people  from  boistrous  and  riotous  passions ; 
pervading  all  classes  it  softens  and  refines  the  national  character. 
Nowhere  can  its  power  be  exerted  more  happily  than  in  the  school 
room. 

Singing  has  a  place  in  the  school  not  only  because  of  its  cultural 
and  disciplinary  value,  but  also  because  it  furnishes  the  child  a 
means  of  expression  and  enjoyment  that  it  unexcelled. 

The  child  is  a  creature  of  impulse  rather  than  of  reason,  and  possess- 
es a  strong  emotional  nature.  Music  meets  the  demands  of  that 
nature,  it  infuses  itself  into  his  life,  entwines  itself  around  his  heart 
and  becomes  a  law  of  his  being.  Hence  his  songs  may  give  tone  and 
directiori  to  his  moral  character.  Some  one  has  noticed  that  upon  the 
introduction  of  music  into  the  public  schools  of  a  certain  town,  the 
number  of  low  and  trashy  songs  heard  among  children  on  the  streets 
sensibly  decreased. 

Music  aids  in  school  discipline.  In  opening  exercises  it  overcomes 
the  turbulence  of  the  boy  and  acts  as  a  safety-valve;  it  brings  the 
interval  between  muscular  and  mental  activity;  it  calms  the  irrita- 
bility following  confinement  and  protracted  study,  and  prepares  the 
way  for  more  study ;  it  furnishes  the  child  a  means  of  expression  and 
enjoyment  not  offered  by  any  other  branch  of  instruction. 


330 

The  Method  of  Teaching  Music. 

No  method  of  musical  instruction  in  public  schools  is  worthy  of 
commendation  which  does  not  lead  directly  to  the  attainment  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil  of  five  objects,  viz:  a  desire  to  sing;  the  ability  to 
read  music  readily  at  sight;  the  improvement  of  the  singing  voice; 
a  knowledge  of  good  music  by  the  best  composers;  and  the  ability  to 
sing  with  feeling  and  expression.  Musical  instruction  in  the  schools 
is  not  intended  merely  as  a  pastime.  Although  much  pleasure  is  de- 
rived from  spontaneous  singing,  unless  the  children  learn  to  read 
music  intelligently,  the  work  is  in  a  great  degree  a  failure.  Thous- 
ands of  people  give  up  the  practice  of  singing  because  they  cannot 
read  music.  The  rote  singer  is  obliged  to  spend  much  time  in  learn- 
ing each  piece  before  he  arrives  at  the  beginning  place  of  the  sight 
singer,  to  whom  fresh  fields  are  ever  open,  and  higher  and  better 
music  is  always  at  his  command.  To  borrow  an  illustration:  Sup- 
pose two  persons  recite  equally  well  a  poem  in  German.  The  one  has 
merely  learned  this  one  piece  and  may  be  ignorant  of  its  meaning; 
the  other  is  a  German  scholar,  and  has  at  his  command  all  the 
treasures  of  knowledge  that  are  stored  in  the  vast  literature  of  the 
German  language. 

Children  can  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  to  read  music  as  skill- 
fully as  they  read  language.  If  this  has  not  been  accomplished  in 
schools  where  music  has  been  taught  for  years,  it  is  due  either  to 
poor  teaching,  or  to  wrong  methods. 

Music  should  have  a  place  in  every  school  curriculum,  and  form  a 
continuous  prolonged  course,  beginning  with  the  simplest  rudiments 
and  leading  the  child  on  by  successive  steps,  systematic  drill  and 
much  practice,  until  he  can  render  and  appreciate  the  highest  grade 
of  music  of  the  best  composers. 

Music  cannot  reach  its  highest  efficiency  in  the  school  unless  the 
children  learn  to  read  it.  The  best  singing  is  found  in  schools  where 
the  children  read  music  well.  Teaching  the  children  to  sing  at  sight 
does  not  defeat  the  real  object  for  which  music  is  taught,  in  fact,  the 
ability  to  read  music  makes  the  pupil  independent  of  his  teacher  and 
facilitates  rather  than  retards  his  musical  development. 

Some  people  contend  that  the  child's  music  sense  is  dulled  by 
learning  to  read  music,  and  therefore  they  put  slight  emphasis  on 
music  reading  with  the  result  that  the  children  who  are  taught  by 
their  methods  do  not  learn  to  read  music  at  all.  It  is  true  that  the 
child's  music  sense  is  first  developed  by  the  spontaneous  singing  of 
songs  learned  by  imitation  but  it  does  not  follow  that  imitative  sing- 


231 

ing  gives  the  child  the  ability  to  sing  by  note.  It  is  true  that  rote 
singing  is  a  necessary  preparation  for  music  reading  just  as  learning 
to  talk  is  a  necessary  preparation  for  language  reading,  but  either  case 
when  the  symbols  are  introduced  there  should  be  no  doubt  left  in  the 
child's  mind  as  to  their  significance. 

Reading  is  a  matter  of  knowing  and  doing  as  well  as  feeling  and  it 
is  foolish  to  contend  that  a  child  can  learn  to  read  solely  through  the 
exercise  of  his  feelings  and  emotions.  While  imitative  singing  awak- 
ens the  music  sense  and  leads  directly  into  sight  singing,  the  latter 
employs  mental  processes  that  are  not  employed  when  the  child  sings 
by  ear,  and  unless  he  is  trained  in  these  particular  processes  he  will 
never  be  able  to  interpret  the  printed  page. 

Music  reading  is  not  the  ultimate  end  to  be  attained  in  school  sing- 
ing but  it  is  a  means  of  hastening  the  child's  progress  toward  that 
end.  The  teaching  of  music  reading  holds  the  same  relation  to  music 
education  as  the  teaching  of  language  reading  holds  to  general  educa- 
tion. It  is,  therefore  a  legitimate  function  of  the  public  schools, 
which  demands  the  teacher's  most  thoughtful  and  active  attention. 

Learning  to  read  music  is  not,  primarily,  a  reasoning  or  a  prob- 
lem solving  process,  it  is  a  performance  to  be  reduced  to  automatism 
by  a  great  deal  of  practice.  It  involves  principally  the  memory,  the 
imagination,  the  music  sense  and  the  perceptive  faculties.  Children 
cannot  learn  to  read  music  by  the  lecture  method,  nor  by  laborious 
and  protracted  drill  on  the  separated  elements  of  melody.  "They 
learn  to  read  by  reading." 

In  teaching  children  to  read  music,  the  practice  of  singing  songs 
directly  from  the  notation  is  the  best  kind  of  drill  for  both  the  ear 
and  the  eye  that  can  possibly  be  given.  Such  practice  gives  them  a 
mastery  of  tone  relation  that  cannot  be  obtained  by  merely  practicing 
skips  abstractly  from  the  scale  melody.  The  soundness  of  this  prin- 
ciple has  been  demonstrated  not  only  in  music  reading  but  in  word 
reading.  Instead  of  teaching  the  alphabet  first  and  then  drilling 
the  children  on  the  various  combinations  of  elementary  sounds,  before 
permitting  them  to  read  words,  as  reading  used  to  be  taught,  entire 
words  in  the  form  of  sentences  are  presented  at  the  beginning. 

In  school  singing,  the  child's  first  musical  experience  should  be 
with  the  song,  his  study  of  music  should  be  based  on  the  song,  and 
song  should  be  the  object  of  his  musical  training.  The  success  of 
music  in  the  schools  depends  more  on  this  principle  than  on  the  arbi- 
trary practices  of  any  particular  "system."  Children  will  work  harder 
with  songs  than  they  will  with  exercises.  Songs  stimulate  the  music 


23% 

sense,  hold  interest  and  leave  lasting  impressions.  A  dreary  page  of 
barren  exercises  makes  no  such  appeal. 

The  preliminary  practice  of  singing  by  syllable  songs  already  learn- 
ed by  ear  while  looking  at  the  notes,  is  for  the  purpose  of  familiariz- 
ing the  child  with  the  staff  notation  and  leading  him  to  recognize 
tone 'relation  in  the  song  where  it  was  originally  discovered. 

The  song  method  presents  the  symbols  of  music  in  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  song  just  as  the  symbols  of  words  are  presented  in  direct 
connection  with  spoken  language.  ''Children  learn  to  read  by  read- 
ing," and  they  begin  to  read  by  beginning.  It  is  unnecessary  to  de- 
lay them  by  dreary  drill  on  dissociated  elements  in  order  to  "lead  up" 
to  music  reading. 

The  teacher  should  not  stop  to  explain  the  notation  in  advance  of 
the  child's  experience.  As  soon  as  he  learns  to  see  scale  relation  in 
melody,  he  has  discovered  the  secret  of  reading  music  and  he  will 
learn  the  notation  as  he  goes  along. 

Music  reading  should  not  be  made  a  forced  process  with  young 
children.  They  should  grow  naturally  in  learning  to  read  just  as  they 
do  in  learning  to  talk.  The  songs  should  be  so  well  adapted  to  the 
child's  capabilities  at  any  given  stage  that  his  progress  is  possible 
without  frequent  and  discouraging  interruptions. 

Eote  singing  should  not  be  discontinued  when  note  singing  begins. 
The  children  should  be  given  an  opportunity  daily  for  spontaneous  ex- 
pression in  song.  This  is  the  spirit  of  the  song  method,  but  rote  sing- 
ing and  music  reading  should  be  so  well  balanced  that  rote  singing 
will  not  prevent  music  reading  as  it  often  does  when  the  teacher  has 
no  definite  aim  in  view. 

When  the  children  are  shown  the  way  clearly  they  will  work  as 
hard  in  learning  to  read  music  as  they  do  in  learning  to  read  language, 
provided  they  have  interesting  material  to  read.  With  good  songs 
they  can  cultivate  good  tone,  good  expression  and  learn  to  read,  all 
at  the  same  time. 

Material  and  Method. 

A  music  course  is  best  represented  by  the  textbooks  used.  Schools 
vary  to  such  an  extent,  even  in  cities  where  music  instruction  is  well 
established,  that  a  rigid  course  of  study  often  proves  to  be  a  handi- 
cap to  the  teacher.  With  a  well  graded  book  the  way  is  made  plain 
to  the  teacher  who  can  read  music. 

The  Congdon  Music  Keaders,  which  are  the  adopted  text, 
to  be  used  by  the  pupils,  may  be  followed  by  any  of  the  higher  books 


233 

suggested  below,  which  together  with  the  Song  Book  issued  by  the 
State  Department  of  Schools,  furnish  not  only  an  abundance  of 
material  for  study  by  note  but  also  songs  for  all  occasions  as  well  as 
for  daily  exercises  and  spontaneous  singing. 

In  schools  where  music  reading  is  not  well  established,  The  Congdon 
First  Reader  (Primer)  can  be  used  as  high  as  the  fourth  grade;  the 
Second  Eeader  as  high  as  the  sixth  grade  and  the  Third  Reader  as 
high  as  the  eighth  grade. 

As  these  books  are  mastered  in  the  higher  grades  they  will  gradually 
settle  into  the  lower  grades  but  in  no  instance  should  the  Primer 
be  used  below  the  second  grade.  This  elasticity  of  plan  which  is  in 
harmony  with  the  principles  already  stated,  will  prove  to  be  the  only 
practical  method  of  adopting  the  music  material  to  the  needs  of  the 
schools.  It  opens  a  progressive  road  to  music  study  without  the  limi- 
tation of  a  "cut  and  dried"  course  of  study  that  holds  some  of  the 
teachers  back  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  crowds  others  along  faster 
than  they  can  go. 

With  the  ability  to  sing  at  sight  music  of  the  same  difficulty  as 
ordinary  hymn  tunes,  the  teacher  is  master  of  the  situation ;  provided, 
-of  course  that  the  school  is  properly  equipped  with  the  necessary  books. 
The  teacher  who  cannot  read  music  should  make  it  her  business  to 
learn  as  soon  as  possible,  the  daily  lesson  with  the  children  is  the 
teacher's  opportunity  for  self-improvement. 

The  children  are  always  ready  to  do  their  part,  but  from  the  very 
beginning  and  in  all  grades  the  teacher  should  insist  on  a  perfectly 
smooth,  light,  pleasant  tone.  Forced  tones  are  not  only  discordant 
but  very  injurious  to  the  voice.  The  "head  tone"  quality  should  be 
learned  by  both  teacher  and  pupils  and  established  in  every  school- 
room. 

In  giving  a  lesson  in  music  reading,  the  teacher  should  be  on  the 
guard  constantly  to  prevent  the  children  from  singing  by  ear.  If  the 
class  is  not  properly  directed  and  the  teacher  does  not  hold  them  to 
singing  by  note,  ear  singing  will  prevail.  Rote  singing  has  its  place 
but  it  should  not  occupy  the  period  set  apart  for  note  singing. 

The  teacher  will  find  it  necessary  to  start  the  tunes  often,  but  let  the 
impluse  of  one  phrase  sung  by  the  teacher  (or  a  few  bright  pupils) 
carry  the  class  through  the  next  phrase  by  note.  Or,  let  the  impulse 
of  one  song  learned  by  ear,  carry  the  class  through  the  next  song 
by  note. 

All  singing  whether  by  note  or  by  rote  should  be  musical  and  mel- 
odious and  in  order  to  do  this  the  teacher  must  '"boost"  frequently. 


234 

But  too  much  boosting  defeats  music  reading.  It  is  so  easy  for  both 
teacher  and  pupils  to  lapse  into  ear  singing  that  effort  in  the  right 
direction  by  the  pupils  is  often  hard  to  secure.  Individual  singing 
is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  good  music  reading.  A  dozen  or 
more  pupils  can  sing  individually  in  two  or  three  minutes,  if  the  work 
is  properly  handled.  Occasional  songs  and  spontaneous  singing  as 
well  as  singing  for  pure  enjoyment  should  be  interspersed  frequently 
in  the  daily  program,  but  all  classes  above  the  first  grade  should  sing 
by  note  for  ten  minutes  each  day  without  interruption. 

Supplementary  Books. 

The   following   books   are   recommended   to   follow   the    Congdon 
Music  Readers: 

Book  Two,  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  American  Book  Com- 
pany, Boston,  Mass. 

or 

Book  Two,  Progressive  Music  Course,  Silver  Burdett  &  Co.,  New 
York, 

or 

Book   Two,   The   New  Educational   Music   Course,    Ginn   &   Co., 
Boston,  Mass. 

Following  the  above  for  upper  grammar  grades  and  High  Schools : 

The  Laurel  Music  Reader  or  The  School  Song  Book,  C.  C.  Birch- 
ard  &  Co.,  Boston. 

For  rote  singing  in  the  primary  grades: 

Songs  of  a  Little  Child's  Day  by  Eleanor  Smith,  Thos.  Charles 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Jessie  Gaynor  Books  One  &  Two,  Clayton  F.  Summy,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Songman's  Pack  by  Nellie  Poorman,  Clayton  F.  Summy,  Chi- 
cago, 111. 


BOOKKEEPING 


Text:     Montgomery's  Modern  Bookkeeping— Single  Entry— Part 

Time:     Second  half  of  eighth  grade. 

Bookkeeping  can  be  taught  best  in  connection  with  7th  and  8th 

grade  arithmetic.     However,  if  teachers  think  it  necessary,  they  may 

teach  it  as  a  separate  subject  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  grade. 

A  set  of  blanks  of  five  numbers  to  accompany  Part  I  has  been  adopted. 

GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Text:     Myers'  General  History  (Eevised). 

General  History  should  not  be  taught  in  the  elementary  grades  un- 
less there  is  a  strong  demand  for  it.  If  taught  at  all  the  teacher 
should,  if  possible,  teach  it  out  of  regular  school  hours,  in  the  eighth 
grade. 

If  necessary  to  teach  this  subject  the  following  suggestions  may 
be  found  helpful. 

(If  general  history  is  attempted  in  this  grade,  the  course  in  United 
States  history  should  be  begun  in  the  sixth  grade  and  completed  in 
the  seventh,  the  manner  of  presenting  it  being  simplified  because  of 
the  younger  age  of  the  pupils.) 

It  will  be  best  in  general  to  follow  the  order  of  subjects  as  pre- 
sented in  the  text  used.  The  same  general  suggestions  as  to  the 
subjects  to  be  emphasized  in  the  study  of  U.  S.  History  will  apply 
in  this  work.  Also  the  suggestions  as  to  the  teaching  of  the  history 
in  the  high  school  course.  Social,  industrial  and  economic  con- 
ditions are  as  important  as  the  progress  in  forms  of  government  and 
the  methods  of  warfare. 

The  manner  of  life  of  the  people,  their  homes,  dress,  social  diver- 
sions and  amusements,  family  life,  education,  literature,  art,  re- 
ligious beliefs  and  observances,  agriculture,  ownership  of  land,  agri- 
cultural products,  slavery,  position  of  women,  manufactures  and  com- 
merce, all.  these  topics  will  be  found  very  fruitful  and  will  well  re- 
pay investigation. 

Pupils  should  outline  lessons  and  recite  in  the  main  by  topics. 
Notebooks  may  be  kept  in  which  material  gathered  from  other 
sources  should  be  entered;  maps  should  be  studied  carefully  and 


236 

important  events  fixed  definitely  both  in  place  and  time.  Study  the 
illustrations  in  the  book,  they  are  meant  to  aid  in  the  understanding 
of  the  text. 

Compare  one  nation  with  another  as  to  its  development  in  civili- 
zation and  note  the  constant  progress  of  civilization  toward  a  higher 
state.  Trace  the  elements  of  our  own  civilization  which  have  come 
to  us  from  the  various  nations  of  the  past.  Show  in  what  way  the 
present  is  better  than  the  past  and  what  we  may  learn  from  the 
past  of  value  to  the  present. 


lord  Bro> 
Makers 


case 


N.  V. 


JftN.  21,  1908 


YC  83834 


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